
Bnnlt.r In 5" 



INTRODUCTION (/ ? ^ / Sr4 Z? 



^*</S~X^2.4£ 



THE FRENCH LANGUAGE: 

COMPRISING 

A FRENCH GRAMMAR, 30* 

WITH 

AN APPENDIX 

OF IMPORTANT -TABLES AND OTHER MATTER; 

AND * 

A FRENCH READER, 

CONSISTING OF SELECTIONS FROM THE CLASSIC LITERATURE OF • 
FRANCE, ACCOMPANIED BY 

EXPLANATORY NOTES, 

AND 

A' VOCABULARY 

ADAPTED TO THE SELECTIONS. 



DAVID FOSDICK, fR. 



ANDOVER: 

PUBLISHED BY GOULD, NEWMAN, & SAXTON. 

NEW YORK: 

CORNER OF FULTON AND NASSAU STS. 

1840. 



a «T£. .,-:' %v*r ."-i ..»'- ^* ^0*.%%^. 



•••>*>► 



v ■ - *• \ 






Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1840, by 

GOULD, NEWMAN, AND SA.XT ON, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 



0m4 



1/ 






1 
i 



PREFACE. 



The study of the French language is now so common among the 
youth of this country, in pursuing what is called a liberal course of 
education, that a want of acquaintance with it on the part of one not 
considerably advanced in years is remarked as denoting scanty op- 
portunities of instruction. To meet the demand thus occasioned, ele- 
mentary books have been greatly multiplied within a few years. 
Jhere yet appear, however, " ample room and verge enough" for 
improvement in their plan and execution. The present volume is 
designed to afford, in itself, sufficient resources for the attainment of 
a very considerable acquaintance with the language. It combines a 
Grammar, a Reader, and a Dictionary, and it is hoped will be found 
an adequate equipment for serious action, thus obviating the usual 
necessity of purchasing three several books at the outset. Should 
the first, endeavors of the student be found successful and encourag- 
ing, this book may be the stepping-stone to the perusal of any produc- 
tions of French literature towards which attention may be directed. 

The Grammar is not intended as a mere abridgment. Complete- 
ness has been one of my aims in its preparation. Its materials have 
been derived mainly from the best French Grammars to which I had 
access, and, to some little extent, from my own direct observation. 
1 have endeavored to reproduce here every important principle of 
French grammar which has in any wa*y met my knowledge. The 
general scheme which 1 have pursued is, I believe, new, save that 
it is the same as that of my German Grammar, published rather less 
than two years ago. The declension, agreement, and government 
of words are not treated of in different and distant parts of the book, 
but all that relates to one part of speech is presented under one sep- 
arate head, yet, I trust, without confusion. Accuracy and conveni- 
ence of method, both in the main and in detail, constitute one of the 
most essential requisites in a Grammar of any language. The con- 
tents should be so arranged that an inquirer may .always know just 
where to look for the explanation of any grammatical fact, instead of 
being obliged, as he too often is, to search hither and thither without 
chart or compass. 

It is common to introduce into French Grammars Exercises for 
practice in writing French. This custom, which tends to augment 
the size of Grammars so much, 1 have not followed, for two reasons : 
first, because a Grammar does not seem to me a strictly suitable re- 



IV PREFACE. 

pository for such Exercises; and, secondly, because I am persuaded 
there is a much better way of learning to write French. Let the 
learner begin by translating some very easy French into English, and 
when he has forgotten the words of the original text (perhaps a 
day or two afterwards,) let him attempt to retranslate the English 
into French. Comparison of the result with the original will show 
him his faults and lead to amendment. 

It will be seen that I have given a rather minute account of French 
pronunciation. It is probable that some of my statements will not 
find universal assent on the part of good French scholars. The truth 
is, there is a want of exact uniformity among the best speakers of 
the language. An ear not very nice will readily detect differences 
of considerable importance. By way of analogy, observe what a dis- 
crepancy exists among the best authorities on the subject of English 
pronunciation ! I have struggled to do the best I could. I shall doubt- 
less be thought wrong by one man, where another, in general equally 
competent to judge, will think me right. The perplexities of the case 
will, I trust, induce lenient criticism. 

The Selections in this volume have been made from the productions 
of the chief elegant writers of France, especially from those which 
afforded convenient opportunity of presenting entire pieces, or at least 
extracts not unintelligible and useless when withdrawn from their 
connection. 1 trust they will not be found to involve too much dif- 
ficulty for beginners. The. requisition of considerable effort, with 
proper aid, best promotes progress. The Explanatory Notes consist 
mostly of references to principles in the Grammar which illustrate 
the text. 

As most of this volume was printed while I was living twenty or 
thirty miles from the press which issues it, 1 have labored under un- 
usual disadvantage in correcting the sheets. Some typographical er- 
rors owe their existence to this circumstance. A few mistakes of 
considerable importance which have met my eye since the sheets 
were struck off are noticed at the foot of page x. I have observed 
some others which are of little consequence, and can easily be cor- 
rected without mention. 1 am aware that the book exhibits many 
imperfections, and fear that many of which I am not at all aware will 
be detected by abler scrutiny. It is easier, however, to discover faults 
when a work is completed, than to avoid them in its preparation. 
Trusting that my book will not encounter an alertness to censure, 
1 here leave it to speak for itself. 

DAVID FOSDICK, JR. 

Andover, Mass. ) 
Sept. 1, 1840. i 



CONTENTS. 



Preface, 



Page. 

3 



GRAMMAR. 



PART I. ELEMENTS OF WORDS. 



13 



l^liAriJiK 1. XXLirilAUUil, f 


• 


• 




Chapter II. Pronunciation, . 


, , 


, 


14 


I. Simple Vowels, 


. 


• 


14 


II. Compound Vowels, 


. 


. 


17 


III. Diphthongs, 


. 


. 


18 


IV. Simple Consonants, 


. 


. 


21 


V. Combined Consonants, 


. 


. 


29 


VI. Peculiar sound of Consonants with 




Vowels, 




. 


33 


VII. Peculiar sound of 


Vowels 


with 




Consonants, . 


, 


, 


37 


VIII. Silence of Vowels, . 


. 


. 


39 


IX. Silence of Consonants, 


. 


. 


41 


X. Syllables and Words, . 


. 


. 


45 


XI. Emphasis, 


• 


• 


47 


Chapter III. Orthography, . 






48 


I. Syllables, 


, 


, 


48 


II. Letters, 


. 


, 


49 


III. Accents, 


. 


. 


50 


IV. Other marks, 


. 


, 


50 


1* 









VI 



CONTENTS. 



PART II. FORMS OF WORDS. 



Chapter I. Article, .... 

I. Variation, . 

II. Determination of Form, 

III. Position, . 

IV. Additional Peculiarities, 

Chapter II. Substantive, 
I. Variation, 

General Statement, . 
Gender of Substantives, 
Number of Substantives, 

II. Determination of Form, 

III. Position, . 

IV. Additional Peculiarities, 

Chapter III. Adjective, 

I. Variation, . 

General Statement, . 
Gender, . 
Number, 

II. Determination of Form, 

III. Position, . 

IV. Additional Peculiarities, 

Chapter IV. Pronoun, .... 

I. Variation, . 

General Statement, . 
Personal Pronouns, . 
Possessive " 
Relative " 
Absolute " 
Demonstrative Pronouns, 
Miscellaneous " . 

II. Determination of Form, 



Chapter V. Verb, 





CONTENTS. 


vn 




Personal Pronouns, . 


88 




Possessive Pronouns, 


92 




Relative and Absolute Pronouns 


s, 94 




Demonstrative Pronouns, . 


97 




Miscellaneous Pronouns, . 


100 


III. 


Position, .... 


100 


IV. 


Additional Peculiarities, . 


103 


ERB 


,..••• 


112 


I. 


Variation, 


112 




General Statement, 


112 




Auxiliary Verbs, 


115 




Regular Verbs, 


121 




1st Conjugation, . 


122 




2d . . 


125 




3d . 


129 




4th " 


132 




Verb with Stre, 


137 




Irregular Verbs, 


140 




Defective Verbs, 


141 




Impersonal Verbs, . 


141 




Pronominal Verbs, . 


143 


II. 


Determination of Form, 


149 




I. Voice, ... 


149 




II. Mode, 


149 




A. Infinitive, 


149 




B. Participles, . 


150 




C. Indicative, . 


153 




D. Conditional, 


154 




E. Subjunctive, 


155 




F. Imperative, . 


158 




III. Tense, . 


158 




IV. Number and Person, 


162 


III. 


Position, . 


165 


IV. 


Additional Peculiarities, 


166 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

Chapter VI. Particles, 174 

I. General Statement, . . . 174 

II. Position, .... 176 

III. Additional Peculiarities, . . 178 

APPENDIX, 183 

A. Words in which u preceded by g or q is pronoun- 

ced as pari of a diphthong, . . . 183 

B. Words in which u preceded by g or q is silent, 184 

C. Words which begin with silent h, . . 187 

D. Words ending with er in which final r is sounded, 192 

E. Words in which final s is sounded, . . 193 

F. Words in which final t is sounded, . . 195 

G. Proper Names of countries and districts larger 

than cities which do not take the Definite Ar- 
ticle, 196 

H. Expressions in which common Substantives are 

used without the Definite Article, . . 197 
I. Substantives of two genders with a different signi- 
fication in each, ..... 202 

J. French Numerals, 204 

K. Adjectives of different signification before and af- 
ter a Substantive, 208 

L. Verbs conjugated with Stre instead of avoir, . 209 

M. Irregular Verbs, 210 

N. Adverbial expressions which require the Subjunc- 
tive or Indicative Mode, .... 277 
O. Interrogation and Negation in French, . . 278 
P. Use of the Prepositions a and de before Infini- 
tives and Substantives, .... 284 



CONTENTS. 



IX 



SELECTIONS. 



PART I. PROSE. 



Amour de la Patrie, 291 

Obscurite du Style, 291 

Avarice, . . 291 

Sincerite, . . 292 

Fermete d'Esprit, . 292 

Amour Filial, . . 292 

Modestie de Platon, . 293 

Exageration, . . 293 

Boileau et un Jesuite, 294 
La Cupidite doublement 

Punie, . . 295 

L'Homme, • . 295 

Le Riche et le Pauvre, 297 

Respect a la Vieillesse, 298 

Jerusalem, . . 299 

Constantinople, . 300 

Venise, . . 301 

Alexandrie, . . 302 

Chilion, ... 304 

BufTon, ... 306 

Marius, ... 306 

Sylla, ... 307 

Cesar, ... 308 

Fenelon Ecrivain, . 309 



Montesquieu, . . 310 
La Bruyere, . . 310 
Mahomet, . . 311 
Les Grecs et les Italiens, 312 
Les peuples de la Betique, 313 
Un Combat de Taureaux, 314 
De la Nature, . 315 

De la Piete et de PHy- 

pocrisie, . . 316 
L'Art d'Ecrire, . 317 
De la Grace, . ' . 318 
L'Eloquence, . . 320 
La Religion des Romains, 321 
Vanite, . . . 322 
Extreme variete de la 

Nature, . . 323 
La Paresse, . . 324 
Mepris de la Mort, . 324 
LaMort, . . 326 

Fragilite Humaine, . 328 
Rapidite de la Vie, . 329 
Immortalite de l'Ame, 329 
L'Evangile, . . 330 



PART II. POETRY. 



2a £ete et (a Queue in 
©erpeut, ♦ ♦ 333 

?e (Sfyaufce^ourte et fe£ 
beur 33eletteg, • 334 

?'3ttrogue et Set gemme, 335 



2e £tgre et fe Dteuarb, 336 

Segleutte, i • 337 

2e3 £eur aSo^ageur^ 337 
9Rantere *>e Stre leg 



aSer^, 



338 



CONTENTS. 



?a9?o3e, ♦ ♦ 340 

Sa SStofettc, • . 340 

?e gout in $eu, ♦ 342 

(£xi$tence be 2)teu, 343 

?a SKau&aige £onte, 344 

?a9ttort, . • 346 

VOCABULARY, 



2a SKoberatton, • 348 

2e3 £ironbetfeg, . 349 
SKortbe Jeanne £)'2lrc,350 

SSonaparte, ♦ . 352 

g'autre Sftonbe, . 354 
Srtrait be Canute cm 

Sfyrtet, . . 355 

357 





INDEX OF AUTHORS. 






Amable Tastu 


(Mme.), 




346 


Fontanes, 




317 


Anonymous, . 


291-3, 


337, 3: 


Harpe (La), . 




306 


Arnault, 






337 


Lamartine, . 


352 3 


354, 355 


Barante (De) 


. 




310 


Massillon, . 




329 


Barthelemy, 






298 


Maury, . 




309 


Beranger (J.-P 


■ Dr.), 




349 


MONNIER (Le), 




336 


Berquin, 


. 




295 


Montesquieu, 




321,322 


BOILEAU, 






344 


Neufchateau (F. 


De), 


333 


Bossuet, 


. 




328 


Pascal, 




323 


Bruyere (La), 


. 




297 


Pierre (St.), 




326 


BuFFON, 




315 


,316 


ROCHEFOUCAULT, 




324 


Chateaubriand 


; • 


299 


,300 


Rousseau (J.-B.), 




343 


Chenedolle, 


. 




340 


Rousseau (J. -J.), 




330 


Condorcet, . 






311 


Seyigne (Mme. D 


■). 


293, 294 


Delavigne, . 


, 




350 


Sismondi, 




312 


Delille, 


. 




342 


Stael (Mme. De) 




301 


Dubos, . 






340 


Vertot, 


306, 


307, 308 


Dumas, . 


. 




304 


ViLLEMAIN, 




320 


Fenelon, 


. 




313 


VOLNEY, 


. 


302 


Florian, 


. 




314 


Voltaire, 




318, 348 


Fontaine, 


333, 


334 


335 









ERRATA. 

19, line 4,5. Instead of " as a in the English word father," read 

as a in § 5. 
86, § 379. Instead of"Autres" read Autrui. 
110, § 509. Instead of " preposition en," read Pronoun en. 
286, under No. IV. the verb Poutoir is omitted. 



GRAMMAR 



THE FRENCH LANGUAGE; 



APPENDIX 



BY 

DAVID FOSDICK, JR. 



ANDOVER: 

PUBLISHED BY GOULD, NEWMAN, AND SAXTON, 
NEW YORK : 

CORNER OF FULTON AND NASSAU STS. 

1840. 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 





PART I. 






ELEMENTS OF WORDS 






CHAP. I. 






i 


1. ALPHABET. 






Letters. 


Names. Eng. representation 


A, a 


Ah 




Ah 


B, b . 


Bay . 




B 


C, c . 


Say or Kay . 




SorK 


D, d 


Day . " . 




D 


E, e 


A , 




Ay 


F, f . . 


Eff or Fay . 




F 


G,g . . 


Zhay or Ghay 




Zh or G 


H, h 


Ahsh . 




H 


I, i . . 


Ee 




E 


1, J 


Zhee . 




Zh 


K, k 


Kah . 




K 


L, 1 . . 


Ell or Lay . 




L 


M, m 


Emm or May 




M 


N, n 


Enn or Nay 




N 


0, o 







O 


P, P • 


Pay . 




P 


Q, q • 


— 




Q 


R, r 


Air or Ray . 




R 


S, ■ . 


Ess or Say . 




s 



14 





§§ 1 5. ALPHABET. 




T,t 


Tay . 


T 


U, u 


— 


— 


V, v 


Vay 


V 


X, x 


Eeks or Ksay 


X 


Y, y . 


E Grec 


E or Y 


Z, z 


Zed or Zay . 


Z 



Observations. 

§ 2. Observ. I. When a letter is represented in the fore- 
going table as having two names, the first is the old mode of 
designating it, and the second is one recently introduced, which 
has not yet universally supplanted the old. 

§ 3. Obs. II. When the names assigned to letters in the 
foregoing table end in ay, this termination is to be pronounced 
in a short, quick manner, more like ai in said than like ay in 
say. 

§ 4. Obs. III. The names of the letters Q and U are not 
stated, because these names cannot be adequately represented 
by any English combination of letters. The sounds of these 
letters will be described hereafter. The name and the sound 
of the letter U are identical. The name of the letter Q is 
formed by prefixing the sound of the English Q or K to that 
of the French vowel U. 



CHAP. II. 

PRONUNCIATION. 



SOUNDS OF THE SIMPLE VOWELS. 

§ 5. a. The sound of this vowel is not, as is commonly 
stated, exactly that of a in the English word father, but inter- 
mediate between that and the sound of a in the English word 
call; e. g. age, age, rare, rare. (See Obs. I. § 15.) 



§§ 6 — 16. SIMPLE VOWELS. 15 

§ 6. e. This vowel without an accent is either mute or 
sounded much like e in the English word water ; e. g. robe, 
robe,je, I, devenir, to become. (See Obs. II. § 16.) 

§ 7. e. The vowel e with the acute accent is sounded as 
a in the English word ale ; e. g. the, tea, ete, summer. 

§ 8. e. The vowel e with the grave accent is sounded 
much as the first e in the English word there, but rather short- 
er ; e. g. regie, rule, modele, model. 

§ 9. e. The letter e with the circumflex accent is sounded 
much the same as the last e, but the mouth must be opened 
wider in uttering it and the voice must dwell upon it longer ; 
e. g. tempete, tempest, bete, foolish. 

§ 10. i. Sounded as e in the English word me; e. g. il, he, 
id, here. 

§ 11. o. This vowel without an accent is pronounced like 
o in the English word ore ; e. g. parole, wood, ecole, school. 

§ 12. o. The vowel o with the circumflex accent is pro- 
nounced very long, as o in the English word note ; e. g. cote, 
coast, apotre, apostle. 

§ 13. u. There is no sound in English which corresponds 
with that of this vowel. (See Obs. III. § 17.) 

§ 14. y. This letter has the same sound as the French i, 
i. e. the sound of e in the English word me; e. g. lyre, lyre, 
dynastie, dynasty. (See Obs. IV. § 18.) 

Observations. 

§ 15. Obs. I. Well-educated Frenchmen could in nearly 
all cases readily detect the foreign origin of an American or 
Englishman by his manner of sounding the French letter a, 
even supposing there were no other indication within their 
notice. The Grammars of the French language commonly 
mislead the learner on this point. 

§ 16. Obs. II. It must be remarked, that the statement 
given concerning the sounds of the different vowels does not 
apply universally ; for where another vowel or a consonant 



16 §§ 16 — 19. SIMPLE VOWELS. 

follows, belonging to the same syllable, the sound of the 
vowels is often peculiar. The varieties of sound which they 
assume in different connections will be specified hereafter. 
(See §§ 20 seq. 30 seq. and 107 seq.) The sound which I 
have ascribed to unaccented e does not belong to it except 
when this vowel terminates a syllable. For further illustra- 
tion of this letter, see § 174 seq., besides the places just re- 
ferred to. 

§ 17. Obs. III. To produce the letter a, place the lips in 
the very position which they would occupy in whistling, and 
then form a vowel-sound, emitting the breath exactly as in 
whistling. Teachers of French commonly direct the learner 
to place his lips in the position I have designated, and then 
merely to try to pronounce the English u. This direction is 
defective and generally useless ; for the pure English u may be 
sounded nearly as well with the lips in that position as while they 
are in any other. There is this difference between the English 
« and the French, viz. that the former requires a motion of the 
tongue after it is commenced, but the latter none, it being a 
mere vocal emission of the breath, while the lips. and tongue 
are in one continued position. — A second mode of obtaining 
the pronunciation of this letter is as follows. Utter the sound 
of oo in the English word moon. In the midst of the pro- 
longed utterance of this sound, suddenly thrust the tongue 
forward against the lower teeth, and the desired sound of the 
French u is the result. 

§ 18. Obs. IV. At the beginning of a syllable and be- 
tween two vowels in the same word, the French letter y has 
the same sound as in the English word yard ; e. g. yeuse, 
holm-oak, royaume, kingdom, moyen, means. This is some- 
times called, I think improperly, a consonant sound. It is 
the same as that of the vowel i in many English words, in 
filial, for example. 

§ 19. Obs. V. All the vowels are sometimes short and 
sometimes long; by which variation, however, I do not in- 



§§ 19 — 26. COMPOUND VOWELS. 17 

tend, as might be supposed by the learner on account of the 
application of the terms in English grammar, any difference 
in the quality of the sound. All that is meant is, that the 
same sound is more or less protracted. No invariable rules 
can be given concerning the length of syllables in French 
any more than in English. The proper pronunciation of 
words in this respect must be acquired chiefly through the 
ear. It may be remarked, however, that an accented sylla- 
ble* is naturally longer than one unaccented, and that a vowel 
marked with a circumflex accent is always very long. 

SOUNDS OF THE COMPOUND VOWELS. t 

§ 20. ai. Sounded commonly as ay in the English word 
day ; e. g. aimahle, lovely, vaine, vain. (See Obs. I. § 26.) 

§ 21. au. Sounded as o in the English word vote; e. g. 
auieur, author, cause, cause. 

§ 22. ei. Sounded as ai above ; e. g. veine, vein, baleine, 
whale. 

§ 23. eu. Sounded as u in the English word turn; e. g. 
peuple, people, jeune, young. (See Obs. II. § 27.) 

§ 24. oi. Sounded as ai above ; e. g. Anglois, English, 
avail, had. (See Obs. III. § 28.) 

§ 25. ou. Sounded as ou in the English word soup ; e. g. 
foule, crowd, route, road. 

Observations. 
§ 26. Obs. I. When there is a circumflex accent over the 
i of the compound vowel ai, the sound becomes like that of 
the simple vowel e with the circumflex accent, i. e. like that 

* By accented syllable in this remark I do not mean a syllable 
marked with a stroke culled an accent, but one on which peculiar 
stress is laid in pronunciation. (See § 181 seq.) 

t By a compound voiccl is here intended a combination of two or 
more vowels representing a single sound different from that of either 
of the simple vowels. 

2* 



18 §§ 26—33. DIPHTHONGS. 

of the first e in there (see § 9) ; e. g. paitre, to feed, maltre, 
master. 

§ 27. Obs. II. The compound vowel eu is sounded dif- 
ferently sometimes, and always when there is a circumflex 
accent over the u. (See § 126.) 

§ 28. Obs. III. This is the only sound which oi has as a 
compound vowel, and, from the influence of Voltaire's exam- 
ple, now sanctioned by the French Academy, although at first 
discountenanced by it, the compound vowel ai is by most 
good writers substituted for oi with this sound. There are 
other sounds of oi which are specified hereafter in §§ 34 seq. 
38, 39, and 121. 

§ 29. Obs. IV. When y is combined with the vowel a it 
is sounded as i would be in the same connection, and, if ano- 
ther vowel follows, the y has likewise the sound mentioned in 
§ 18. Obs. IV; e. g. crayon, pencil, frayeur, fright. The 
compound vowel oy is sounded in French as in the English 
word royal; e. g. royaume, kingdom, joyeux, joyous. 

SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 

§ 30. A diphthong is a combination of vowels which re- 
quires more than one separate sound. These separate sounds, 
however, are commonly uttered as nearly as possible in one 
syllable, though in poetry they often stand for two, ~ 

§ 31. Diphthongs may be composed (1) of two simple vow- 
els, (2) of a simple vowel and a compound one (in the order 
in which I have mentioned them, or the reverse), or (3) of 
two compound vowels ; e. g. (1) ia, (2) iai, oua, (3) ouie. 

§ 32. Those combinations of vowels which are not other- 
wise designated in this chapter are to be considered as 
diphthongs, and to be sounded rapidly in the manner stated 
above in § 30. Only three of the diphthongs are pronounced 
differently from the ordinary utterance of their component 
parts. The sounds of these three I proceed to describe. 

§ 33. oe. In a few words these two vowels sometimes oc- 



§§ 33—36. DIPHTHONGS. 19 

cur (N. B. the e with a circumflex accent,) as a diph- 
thong, although it is now considered most correct to write oi 
instead. When this diphthong occurs, the o is sounded long, 
as o in the English word note, and the e is sounded as a in the 
English word father ; e. g. poele, stove, now usually spelt 
po'ile. 

§ 34. oi. These two vowels, when they form a diphthong, 
are sounded exactly as the preceding diphthong, oe. It has 
been remarked in § 28, that in cases where oi would not be 
a diphthong, but would have the sound of the compound 
vowel ai, it is now commonly changed to ai. But, as some 
books still retain the old method of spelling, it may be well 
to state rules by which the different sounds of oi in this old 
method may be accurately determined. 

§ 35. Rule I. The letters oi are sounded as ai (1) in the 
terminations of the imperfect and conditional tenses of all 
verbs ; e. g.favois, I had, faurois, I should have, je recevois, 
I received : (2) in the following names of certain nations and 
provinces ; Anglois, English, Bearnois, Bearnese, Bourbon- 
nois, Bourbon nese, Ecossois, Scotch, Ferrarois, Ferrarese, 
Hollandois, Dutch, Irlandois, Irish, Lyonnois, Lyonnese, 
Milanois, Milanese, Nivernois, Nivernese, Olearnois, Olear- 
nese, Piedmontois, ©edmontese, Polonois, Pole, Portugois, 
Portuguese, Sessonnois, Sessonnese : and (3) in the first syl- 
lable offoiblir, to grow weak, and the second of connoitre, to 
know, and of paroitre, to appear. N. B. In all the derivatives 
of these three verbs the oi has the same pronunciation ; e. g. 
foiblesse, weakness, affoiblir, to weaken, affoiblissement, weak- 
ening, connoissance, knowledge, connoisseur, connoisseur, 
miconnoitre, to forget, reconnoitre, to recognise, apparoitre, 
to appear (as a ghost), co?nparoitre i to appear (as a witness), 
disparoitre, to disappear, reparoitre, to reappear. 

§ 36. Rule II. In all other cases (see Obs. I. § 38.) oi is 
a diphthong, and is sounded as directed in § 34 ; e. g. Bava- 
rois, Bavarian, Carthaginois, Carthaginian, Chinois, Chinese, 



20 §§ 36 39. DIPHTHONGS. 

Danois, Dane, Generals, Genevese, Ginois, Genoese, Hes- 
sois, Hessian, Hibernois, Irish, Hongrois, Hungarian, Lie- 
geois, Liegese, Siamois, Siamese, Saedois, Swede, que je 
sois, that I may be, recevoir, to receive, pouvoir, to be able, 
croitre, to increase, croire, to believe. (See Obs. II. § 39.) 

§ 37. ua. These two letters are commonly either sounded 
separately like an ordinary diphthong (§ 30.) or like a alone, 
the u being silent (§ 131.) ; but, in some instances (not in all) 
when they are preceded by the consonant g or q, they form 
a peculiar diphthong, the u having a sound which it often has 
in English, viz. that of ou in soup, and the a having its ordi- 
nary French sound ; e. g. Ungual, lingual, equaleur, equator.* 

Observations. 

§ 38. Obs. I. Except when oi occurs with a diaeresis 
(see § 204.) over the i (oi), in which case the two letters are 
not either a compound vowel or a diphthong, but are sounded 
separately in entire independence of each other ; e. g. Ae'- 
ro'ine, (ha-ro-een) heroine. The diaeresis has the same ef- 
fect upon the sound of all other combinations of vowels; c. g. 
hair, to hate, a'ieul, grandfather, Said, Saul, poete, poet. 

§ 39. Obs. II. There has been vcr}^ much dissension 
among the best French grammarians in regard to the true 
pronunciation of the diphthong oi ; nearly all, indeed, giving 
the same sound to the o, (though by a few this is represented 
as having the sound of oo in the English word moon,) — but 
some sounding the i nearly as a in the English word hang, 

* For a pretty extensive list of the words in which ua is pro- 
nounced thus, see App. A. It will be noticed that the sound ofgu 
or qu in these words is the same as the sound of the same letters in 
the corresponding English words, whenever there are such corres- 
ponding words in English. The only difference is in the sound of 
the vowel a which follows gu or qu, — Some pronounce the u in 
dufrgne, duenna, also, like ou in the English word soup, on account 
of its Spanish origin. 



§§ 39 — 42. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. 21 

others as e in the English word water, a third party as the 
first e in the English word there, a fourth as a in the English 
word father, a fifth nearly as a in the English word wall, 
(that sound which I have given to it,) a sixth as e in the Eng- 
lish word water when oi is followed by any consonant except 
s or x, and nearly as a in the English word wall when followed 
by s, x or e mute, and a seventh giving it, according to its dif- 
ferent connections, each of the five different sounds which I 
have described. Good usage, I believe, may be said now to 
be concentering upon the uniform pronunciation of this diph- 
thong as I have represented above. 

SOUNDS OF THE SIMPLE CONSONANTS,. 

§ 40. h. This letter is sounded precisely as in English ; 
e. g. barbe, beard, Babel, Babel. 

§ 41. c. This letter has two different sounds in French : 

(a) Whenever it occurs, without a cedilla (§ 198.), before 
either of the vowels a, o,u, it is sounded hard, like c in the 
English word cat ; and so also before any consonant, except- 
ing, in some cases, the letter h (§ 78.) ; e. g. cable, cable, 
col, neck, culte, worship, clair, clear, creme, cream, contact, 
contact. (See Obs. I. § 59.) 

(b) Whenever it occurs before either of the vowels e, i, y, 
or, with a cedilla (§ 198.) beneath it, before a, o, or u, it is 
sounded like the English 5 in sense; e. g. ceci, this, cycle, cy- 
cle, for cat, galley-slave, lepoii, lesson, recu, received. (See 
Obs. II. III. §§60, 61.) 

§ 42. .:/. This letter is sounded as in English, except when 
it is at the end of a word and is followed by a word beginning 
with a vowel or an h mute (§ 139 seq.), in which case, it is 
sounded as t in the English word cat, or (to exhibit an anal- 
og3 r between the English and the French in regard to this 
letter,) as d at the end of the English words cracked, stuffed ; 
e. g. date, date, grand homme, great man, pied-a-terre, foot 
on the ground. 



22 §§ 43 — 48. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. 

§ 43. f. This letter is sounded as in English, except when 
it is at the end of a word and is followed by a word beginning 
with a vowel or an h mute, in which case it it sounded like v 
in the English word five ; e. g.frais, fresh, Jille, girl, ce bceuf 
est vif etfort, this ox is lively and strong, neuf enfans, nine 
children, neufhommes, nine men. (See Obs. IV. § 62.) 

§ 44. g. This letter has three different sounds in French. 

(a) Whenever it occurs before either of the vowels a, o,u, 
or before any consonant, unless it helps to form a peculiar 
sound in combination with that consonant (§ 79 and 80.), it is 
sounded hard, as in the English word go; e. g. garde, guard, 
goulte, drop, figure, figure, glace, ice, gnome, gnome, grile, hail. 

(b) Whenever it occurs before either of the vowels e, i, y, 
it is sounded as % in the English.word azure; e. g. age, aged, 
gibier, game, gypse, gypsum. (See Obs. V. § 63.) 

(c) In the words long, long, rang, rank, and sang, blood, 
if the next word begin with a vowel, and also in the word 
bourg, market-town, in all cases, (see Obs. VI. § 64.) its sound 
is that of the English k ; e. g. suer sang et eau, to toil hard, 
rang eleve, elevated rank, long entretien, long conversation, 
bourg ferme, closed market-town. (See Obs. Vll. § 65.) 

§ 45. h. When this letter is not silent (§ 139 seq.) it is 
sounded as h in the English word hard, commonly with more 
force than is given to it in English ; e. g. heros, hero, hideux, 
hideous. 

§ 46. j. This letter is always sounded like z in the Eng- 
lish word azure, i. e. just as the soft g in French (§ 44. b.) ; 
e. g.jeu, gamc,joujou, plaything. 

§ 47. k. This letter is always sounded as in English ; e. g. 
Kan, Khan, kali, name of a sea-weed. (See Obs. VIII. § 66.) 

§ 48. 1. This letter has two different sounds in French : 

(a) It has a liquid sound, like that of lli in the English word 
brilliant, in all words ending in ail, eil* euil, and ouil, and 

* This terminHtion includes, it must be noticed, such words as 
ml', eye, rccucil , collection, accueil , reception, etc. 



§§ 48—55. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. 23 

also in a few words ending in il with a consonant immediately 
preceding ; e. g. serail, seraglio, conseil, counsel, ecureuil, 
squirrel, fenouil, fennel, Avril, April.* (See Obs. IX. § 67.) 

(b) In other cases, when it is sounded at all (§ 144.) it is 
sounded as I in the English word lily ; e. g. lis, lily, legisla- 
teur, legislator. 

§ 49. m. This letter, except in certain connections (§ 92 
seq.), is sounded as in English ; e. g. mats, but, ami, friend. 

§ 50. n. This letter, likewise, except in certain connec- 
tions (§ 92 seq.), is sounded precisely as in English ; e. g. 
nonne, nun, nenni, no. 

§ 51. p. The sound of this letter is the same in French as 
in English ; e. g. pape, pope, pepin, kernel. 

§ 52. q. The sound of this letter is the same in French 
as in English, viz. that of k in king ; e. g. coq, cock, equateur, 
equator. (See Obs. X. § 68.) 

§ 53. r. The sound of this letter is that of the English r 
rolled or trilled ; e. g. rural, rural, rare, rare. 

§ 54. s. This letter has two different sounds in French : 

(a) Whenever it occurs between two vowels in the same 
word, or at the end of a word before another beginning with 
a vowel or h mute, it is commonly sounded (if at all, § 151 
seq.) soft, like 5 in the English word rose; e. g. plaisir, 
pleasure, rose, rose, les amis, the friends, ces hommes, these 
men. (See Obs. XL § 69.) 

(b) Elsewhere it is commonly sounded hard, as 5 in the Eng- 
lish word so; e.g.s-tfge, wise, espace, space. (See Obs. XII. §70.) 

§ 55. t. This letter has two different sounds in French : 

(a) It is commonly sounded as t in the English word tone ; 
e. g. texte, text, totalitt, total. 

(b) It is frequently sounded as c in the English word cedar, 
especially before ie and ion ; e. g. patience, patience, action, 
action. (See Obs. XIII. § 71.) 

* The letter I is liquid too in the proper names MUhavt and Par- 
dalhac. 



24 §§ 56 — 59. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. 

§ 56. v. This letter has the same sound in French as in 
English ; e. g. veuve, widow, vivant, living. 

§ 57. x. This letter has four different sounds in French : 

(a) Its most usual sound is that of the hard English x in 
box ; e. g. sexe, sex, oxygkne, oxygen, exceder, to exceed, ex- 
ruder, to exude, extreme, extreme. (See Obs. XIV. § 72.) 

(b) It is sounded like the soft English x in example, in all 
words beginning with x, ex or hex followed by a vowel or si- 
lent h; e. g. Xavier, Xavier, Ximenes, Ximenes, examiner, to 
examine, exercise, exercise, exister, to exist, exorde, exordium, 
exuberance, exuberance, exhiber, to exhibit.* 

(c) In the following words it is sounded like ss in the Eng- 
lish word assail: dix, ten, six, six, soixante, sixty, Aix, Aix, 
Auxerre, Auxerre, Auxonne, Auxonne, Bruxelles, Brussels, 
Cadix, Cadiz, Luxeuil, Luxeuil, and Xaintonge, Saintonge. 
(See Obs. XV. § 73.) 

(d) In the following words it is sounded like % in the Eng- 
lish word gaze : deiixieme, second, deuxUmement, secondly, 
dixUme, tenth, dixiemement, tenthly, dix-huit, eighteen, dix- 
neuf, nineteen, sixain, stanza of six verses, sixieme, sixth, six- 
ilmement, sixthly ; and so also at the end of a word when the 
next word begins with a vowel or an h mute (when the next 
word begins with a consonant the x is silent, § 155.) ; e. g. 
lieux enchanies, enchanted places, deux hommes, two men. 
(See Obs. XVI. and XVII. §§ 74, 75.) 

§ 58. z. This letter is sounded as z in the English word 
tone ; e. g. douze, twelve, zizanie. tare. (See Obs. XVIII. § 76.) 

Observations. 

§ 59. Obs. I. In a few words which fall under the de- 
scription here given the c is softened by common usage nearly 
or quite to the sound of g in the English word go ; viz. in 
second, second, (and its derivatives), becasse, woodcock, bicas- 

* So, of course, in the derivatives of such words ; e. g. in prtt f z- 
ister, to preexist, prt&cistence, preexistence. 



§§ 59 65. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. 25 

sine., snipe, czar, czar, Claude, Claude, Reine- Claude, green 
gage (plum), and secret, secret. It is universally pronounced 
thus in the first of these words, second (and its derivatives) ; 
but in regard to the rest there is not entire agreement, some 
pronouncing them as we have represented, and others re- 
taining the hard sound of c. 

§ 60. Obs. II. In two words, derived from the Italian lan- 
guage, vermicelle, vermicelli, and violoncelle, violoncello, c 
before e is pronounced as ch in the English word chaise. 

§ 61. Obs. III. The French words in which double c is 
followed by e or i are pronounced in exact conformity with 
the two rules here given. Thus, e. g., in the words accent, 
accent, accelere, accelerated, accident, accident, the double c 
is sounded just as in the corresponding English words, the 
first being hard, like c in cat, from its position before the con- 
sonant c, and the second being soft because it stands before 
the vowel e or i. 

§ 62. Obs. IV. Neuf, however, in the expressions, neuf 
en tout, nine in all, and neuf a diner, nine to dine, is pro- 
nounced with the usual hard sound of f. 

§ 63. Obs. V. The French words in which double g is 
fjllowed by e or i are pronounced conformably to the two 
rules which have been stated. Thus, e. g., in suggerer, to 
suggest, and suggestion, suggestion, the first g, standing be- 
fore a consonant, is sounded hard, as g in the English word 
go, and the second, standing before the vowel e, is sounded 
like z in the English word azure. 

§ 64. Obs. VI. This statement does not apply to com- 
pounds of which this word forms a part. In these the g is 
generally silent (§ 138.), and in bourgmestre, burgomaster, 
the g is pronounced as in the English word go. 

§ 65. Obs. VII. The first g in the word gangrene, gan- 
grene, and its derivatives, gangrener, to gangrene, gangrd- 
neux } gangrenous, is almost universally sounded in the same 

3 



26 §§ 65 — 70. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. 

manner, precisely as if the words began with c. This pro- 
nunciation is authorised by the French Academy. 

§ 66. Obs. VIII. The letter K has little or no claim to be 
considered as belonging to the alphabet of the French, since 
they no longer use it except in a few words of infrequent oc- 
currence borrowed from foreign languages. Formerly some 
words were spelt with this letter which are now spelt with c; 
e. g. Kalendes, Calends, Kalendrier, calendar, now Calendes 
and Calendrier. Even these words, however, were all of 
foreign origin. 

§ 67. Obs. IX. The following are all the words ending in 
il with a consonant immediately preceding in which the I has 
the liquid sound : Avril, April, babil, prattle, Bresil, Brazil 
or Brazil-wood, cil, eyelashes, fenil, hay-loft, gentil, heathen, 
gresil, small hail, mil, millet, peril, peril. In the word gril, 
gridiron, it is liquid when it is not wholly suppressed, as it 
commonly is when this word is used in familiar discourse 
($ 144.) 

§ 68. Obs. X. I know of no French words but cinq, five, 
and coq, cock, in which this letter is not immediately fol- 
lowed by the vowel u, as it is invariably in English. For a 
very peculiar pronunciation of q see § 75. 

§ 69. Obs. XI. In the following words it is sounded hard 
between two vowels : contresigner , to countersign, desuetude, 
desuetude, entresol, one-story lodgings, gisant, lying, havre- 
sac, knapsack, monosyllabe, monosyllable, parasol, parasol, 
polysyllabe, polysyllable, preseance, precedence, presupposer 
(first s), to presuppose, resaisir (first s), to reseize, resaluer, 
to resalute, tournesol, sun-flower, vraisemblablc, probable, 
rraisemblance, likelihood, and all other compounds formed of 
one word ending with a vowel and another beginning with s. 

§ 70. Obs. XII. In the following words it is sounded soft, 
although it does not stand between two vowels : Alsace, Al- 
sace, Arsace, Arsace, Asdrubal, Asdrubal, asbeste, asbestos, 



§§ 70, 71. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. 27 

Augsbourg, Augsburg, balsamine, balsam, balsamique, bal- 
samic, bisbille, quarrel, Breisgau, Breisgau, Israel, Israel 
(and its derivatives), Esdras, Esdras, intransitif, intransitive, 
Isboseth, Ishbosheth, Lesbos, Lesbos, Louisbourg, Louisburg, 
Pkilipsbourg, Philipsburg, presbytere, presbytery (and its de- 
rivatives), Presbourg, Presburg, Rysicick, Ryswick, sbire, 
constable, second, second,* Sdili, Delos, Sedan, Sedan, Sgan- 
arelle, Sganarelle, svelte, slender, Thisbe, Thisbe, transac- 
tion, transaction, transalpin, transalpine, transeat, pass out, 
transiger, to transact, transitif, transitive, transition, transi- 
tion, transitoire, transitory. 

§ 71. Obs. XIII. It is so sounded (1) in all substantives 
ending in tion, unless this termination be immediately pre- 
ceded by an 5 or an x, e. g. action, action, nation, nation (but 
hard in question, question, mixtion, mixture) ; (2) in all ad- 
jectives and nouns ending in tial, tiel, tient, or tieux, and in 
their feminines and other derivatives, e. g., martial, martial, 
partial, partial, quotient, quotient, captieux, captious ; (3) in 
the following, words terminating in tie : argutie, cavil, aris- 
tocratic, aristocracy, Beotie, Boeotia, burocratie i burocracy, 
calvitie, baldness, Croaiie, Croatia, Dalmatie, Dalmatia, de- 
mocratic, democracy, diplomatic, diplomacy, epizootie, con- 
tagious disorder among cattle, eutropetie, good nature, fad- 
tie, facetiousness, Galatie, Galatia, imperitie, ignorance, inep- 
tie, foolery, inertie, inertia, minutie, trifle, peripttie, sudden 
turn of foriune, primatie, primacy, prophetie, prophecy, su- 
prematie, supremacy, theocratie, theocracy, and in their de- 
rivatives ; (4) in the following words terminating in tien : 
Capetien, Capetian, Diocletien, Dioclesian, Domitien, Domi- 
tian, Egyptien, Egyptian, Gratien, Gratian, Helvttien, Hel- 
vetian, Titien, Titian, Venitien, Venitian, and in their deriva- 



* Thus, e. g., il est !e second da sa classc, he is the second in hie 
class. It is true, the s is here between two vowels, but not " be- 
tween two vowels in the same word," and therefore its soft sound is 
a deviation from the general rule. (See § 54. a, cf, id, b.) 



28 §§ 71 75. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. 

tives ; and (5) in the verbs balbutier, to stammer, initier, to 
initiate, and in all their inflexions and derivatives. 

§ 72. Obs. XIV. It has been usual, in treating of French 
pronunciation, to represent the letter x as having^/we different 
sounds, distinguishing between the x in extreme, for example, 
and that in exce'der or exsuder. In the former word it is said 
to have the sound of ks, and in the latter only that of k. The 
distinction seems to me groundless. It is not made in our 
own language between the x in extreme and that in exceed or 
exscind. Both languages, I believe, give the same sound to 
x in all these words beginning with ex followed by a conso- 
nant. In case the consonant sound following is that of s, the 
s sound in the x naturally coalesces with it in both languages; 
but this is no reason for supposing the x to have a peculiar 
sound in such words. 

§ 73. Obs. XV. In the words dix, ten, and six, six, the 
letter x is sounded like ss only in case these words are not con- 
nected with a substantive immediately following ; as, e. g., in 
the following expression : de seize otez dix, reste six, from six- 
teen take ten, and six remains. When either of these numerals is 
immediately followed by a substantive which it qualifies, the 
x is generally not pronounced at all if the substantive begins 
with a consonant (§ 155.), and it is sounded like z if the sub- 
stantive begins with a vowel or h mute, according to the rule 
in § 57. d. 

§ 74. Obs. XVI. In the following words the letter x is 
sounded hard, like the English x in box, under all circum- 
stances : borax, borax, climax, climax, index, index, larynx, 
larynx, lynx, lynx, onyx, onyx, perplex, perplexed (com- 
monly, however, spelt perplexe), phenix, phenix, pnfix, ap- 
pointed, sphinx, sphinx, syrinx, shepherd's pipe, storax, sto- 
rax, thorax, thorax, in all proper names ending with this let- 
ter, and generally in all words coming from the Latin, 
Greek, or any foreign language. 

§ 75. Obs. XVII. The letter x in Don Quixote is sounded 



^ 75 79. COMBINED CONSONANTS. 29 

by the French like sh in the English word shore. By a fur- 
ther anomaly, the q in the word is most commonly pronounced 
like g in the English word go, 

§ 76. Obs. XYIII. In the following words the letter z is 
pronounced hard like s in the English word so : Alvarez, 
Alvarez, Fez, Fez, gat, gas, Metz,Meiz, Rhodez, Rhodes, 
Rodriguez, Rodriguez, Sanchez, Sanchez, Senez, Senez, Sua- 
rez, Suarez, Vasquez, Vasquez. 

SOUNDS OF COMBINED CONSONANTS. 

§ 77. I shall, of coarse, notice only such combinations of 
consonants in a single syllable as exhibit deviations from the 
rules which have been laid down respecting the sounds of 
single consonants. When in any syllable two consonants oc- 
cur together which are not here specified as possessing a pe- 
culiar sound on account of their combination, each is to be 
sounded separately, according to the rules before given, un- 
less one or both of them be silent (§§ 133 — 174). The com- 
binations of consonants in French are much the same as in 
English. (See Obs. I. and II. §§ 84, 85.) 

§ 78. ch. These two consonants occurring together have 
two different sounds in French : 

(a) In all words properly French in their origin, or which 
are derived from the Latin only, ch is sounded as sh in the 
English word share ; e. g. chercher, to seek, vache, cow. 

(b) In all words coming from the Greek, Hebrew, or 
Arabic, ch is commonly pronounced like cA^in the English 
word chorus ; e. g. orchestre, orchestra, archange, archangel. 
(See Obs. III. and IV. §§ 86, 87.) 

§ 79. gl. These consonants occurring together have al- 
most invariably the same sound in French as in the English 
word glad ; e. g. glace, ice, regler, to regulate. In two 
words, however, borrowed from the Italian language, they 
have the liquid sound before attributed to Z in some instances, 
(§ 48. a.) that of Hi in the English word brilliant : viz. im- 

3* 



30 §§ 79 84. COMBINED CONSONANTS. 

broglie (now more commonly spelt imbroille), confusion, and 
De Broglie (proper name of a family). 

§ 80. gn. These consonants occurring together have two 
different sounds in French : 

(a) They have almost always the liquid sound which they 
possess in the English word bagnio, or the sound of ni in the 
English word onion ; e. g. regner, to reign, vigne, vine. 
(See Obs. V. § 88.) 

(b) In all words beginning with these consonants they are 
sounded as gn in the English word ignorant; e. g. gnome, 
gnome, Gnostique, Gnostic. So also even in the midst of a 
few words. (See Obs. VI. § 89.) 

§ 81. 11. These consonants occurring together have two 
different sounds in French : 

(a) They have often the liquid sound of Hi in the English 
word brilliant. They always have this sound when they are 
preceded by ai, ei, eui, or oui ; e. g. bailler, to deliver, con- 
seiller, to counsel, aiillade, leer, cueillir, to gather, feuille, 
leaf, bouillon, broth. 

(b) When they have not this liquid sound they are sounded 
as in the English word village. This latter sound they al- 
ways have in words beginning with ill ; e. g. illegal, illegal, 
illusion, illusion. (For other cases in which 11 is not liquid, 
see Obs. VII. and VIII. §§ 90, 91.) 

§ 82. ph. These consonants occurring together in French 
are sounded like/, as in the English word philosopher ; e. g. 
phrase, phrase, plwsphore, phosphorus. 

§ 83. sh. These consonants occurring together in French 
are sounded as in the English word shake; e. g. sherif, sheriff 

Observations. 

§ 84. Obs. I. The French combinations of consonants in 

a single syllable which have not been mentioned arc the 

following : bl (c. g. table, table), br (e. g. bras, arm), cl (e. g. 

clair, clear), chm (§ 87.), chr (e. g. Christ, Christ), cr (e. g. 



§§ 84 86. COMBINED CONSONANTS. 31 

icrire, to write), dr (e. g. cadran, dial), fl (e. g. ronfier, to 
snore), fr (e. g. defrayer, to defray), gr (e. g. agreable, agree- 
able), phr (e. g. paraphrase, paraphrase),* pi (e. g. plaisir, 
pleasure), p* (e. g. pourpre, purple), sc (e. g. scandale, scan- 
dal, ascetique, ascetict), sg (e. g. Sganarelle, Sganarelle), si 
(e. g. sloupe, sloop), sm (e. g. miasme, miasma), sn (e. g. 
Basnage, Basnage), sp (e. g. espoir, hope), st (e. g. reste, re- 
mainder), sv (e. g. svelte, slender), tl (e. g. Tlaspi, Tlaspi), 
tr (e. g. albdire, alabaster), vr (e. g. oeuvre, work.) In Hi the 
^ is always silent (§ 143.) 

§ 85. Obs. II. When a consonant is doubled, the only ef- 
fect which is produced by the repetition is increased force of 
utterance ; e. g. erreur, error, moisson, harvest. f 

§ 86. Obs. III. The following is a very considerable list 
of the French words in which ch is pronounced thus : Achab, 
Ahab, Achate, Achaia, Achelous, Achelous, Anacharsis, Ana- 
charsis, anachorete, anchorite, anchilops, tumor in the eye, 
Antiochus, Antiochus, ar change, archangel, Archangel, Arch- 
angel, archaisme, archaism, archetype, archetype, archiepis- 
copal, archiepiscopal, archie pis cop at, archbishopric, archonte^ 
archon, Bacchus, Bacchus (and all its derivatives), brachial^ 

* In yhr } as well as chr and chm preceding, the ph has the sound 
specified in § 82, and the ch that specified in § 78. b, and then the 
sound of the following consonant is subjoined. The first two in- 
stances are the same as in English. In English the ch of drachm is 
silent. 

t In this latter case, as in similar cases in English, the s may be 
considered as belonging to one syllable and the c to the following, 
the c being soft before e, i, or y (§ 41 . b). In such words as science, 
science, sceptre, sceptre, the c has the soft sound before the vowel, 
and the s coalesces with it, just as in English. 

+ This accounts for the frequent insertion of an additional s in a 
compound word of which one of the component parts ends with a 
vowel and the other begins with s ; e. g. dessus, above, desservir, to 
injure one, ressortlr, to go out again. It is designed to avoid the 
soft sound of s between two vowels (§ 54. a). 



32 §§ 86 — 88. COMBINED CONSONANTS. « 

brachial, Calchas, Calchas, catechumene, catechumen, chalci- 
doine, chalcedony, chalcographie, chalcography, Chalddique, 
Chaldaic, Chaldken, Chaldean, chalibe, chalybeate, Cham, 
Ham, Chanaan, Canaan, chaos, chaos, Charon, Charon, che- 
lidoine, chelidony, Cher once, Cheronea, Chersonese, Cherso- 
nesus, Chieti, Chieti, chilior';i:e, captain of a thousand, Chio, 
Scio, cldragre, chiragra, f&irdgropMe, hand-writing, chiroman- 
cie, chiromancy, chiromancien, chiromancer, chceur, choir, 
chondrille (name of a plant), chorkbe, chorebus, chorege, cho- 
ragus, chorisie, chorister, chorus, chorus, Chosrocs, Chosroes, 
Civita Vecchia (name of an Italian city), Dyrrachium, Dyrra- 
chium, echo, echo, eucharistie, eucharist, ichnographie, ich- 
nography, ichoreux, ichorous, ichthyologie, ichthyology., La- 
chesis, Lachesis, lichen, lichen, loch, lake, Machabtes, Mac- 
cabees, Machiavel, Machiavel, Melchisedec, Melchisedec, JUS- 
chel Angelo, Michael Angelo, Nabnchodonosor, Nabuchodo- 
nosor, orchestique, art of dancing, orchestre, orchestra, patri- 
archate patriarchate, Pidcherie, Pulcheria, scholie, scholium, 
tachygraphie, short-hand (and derivatives), technique, techni- 
cal (and derivatives), Tycho Brahe (name of a philosopher), 
Zacharie, Zechariah, Zurich, Zurich. 

§ 87. Obs. IV. To this rule (b) there are the following 
exceptions: (1) of proper names, Acheron, Acheron, Achil- 
la, Achilles, Chypre, Cyprus, Joachim, Joachim, Zachee, 
Zaccheus ; (2) of other words, anarchie, anarchy, archeveque, 
archbishop, archiduc, archduke, architecte, architect, archi- 
trave, architrave,* cherubin, cherubim, chirurgie, surgery, 
chirurgicn, surgeon, chymie, chemistry, monarchic, monarchy, 
schisme, schism, schismatique, schismatic, schiste, schist ; in all 
of which the ch has the soft sound, that of sh in the English word 
share. The ch in drachme, drachm, is pronounced like g hard. 

§88. Obs. V. This liquid sound ofgn may be reduced to the 
sound of the letters ny in English, referred to different syllables, 

* And so all F'vnoh words beginning with archi. except, two men- 
tioned in the preceding section. 



§§ 88 92. PECULIAR SOUNDS OF CONSONANTS. 33 

Thus, bagnio is pronounced ban-yo. In all cases where liquid 
gn occurs in the midst of a French word, if the sound of 
English n be annexed to the previous syllable, and the sound 
of?/ be prefixed to the next syllable, the gn will be pronoun- 
ced correctly. 

§ 89. Obs. VI. Gn is hard in the midst of the following 
words : agnat, agnate (and its derivatives), Agnus Castus, 
chaste tree (not in agnus when alone), cognat, cognate (and its 
derivatives), diagnostique, diagnostic, Gnostique, Gnostic, ig- 
nee, igneous (and its cognates, such as ignition, ignition, igni~ 
vore, ignivorous, etc.), inexpugnable, inexpugnable, ma gnat 9 
magnate, magnesie, magnesia, pignoratif, pignorative, Progne, 
Progne, regnicole, denizen, stagnant, stagnant (and its cog- 
nates). 

§ 90. Obs. VII. LI is never liquid when immediately pre- 
ceded by any other vowel than i, except in the proper name 
Sully ; e. g. allegorie, allegory, elle, she, collusion, collusion, 
ebullition, ebullition, Sylla, Sylla. 

§ 91. Obs. VIII. Ill not at the beginning of a word has 
invariably the liquid sound, except in the following words, 
with their inflexions and other derivatives, if they have any : 
Achille, Achilles, armillaire, armillary, calville (sort of ap- 
ple), campanille, steeple, codicille, codicil, distiller, to distil, 
fibrille, slender fibre, fritillaire, fritillary, Gille, Gill, imbi- 
cille, imbecile, instiller, to instil, Lille, Lille, maxillaire, max- 
illary, mille, thousand or mile, osciller, to oscillate, pupille, pu- 
pil, scintiller, to scintillate, sille (satirical poem among the 
Greeks), sibylle, sibyl, titiller, to tickle, tranquille, tranquil, 
vaciller, to vacillate, vaudeville, vaudeville, ville, city, village, 
village. 

PECULIAR SOUNDS OF CONSONANTS FROM CONNECTION 
WITH VOWELS. 

§ 92. The consonants m and n are the only ones the 
sound of which is changed by their connection with a vowel ; 
and these are thus affected only in certain circumstances. 



34 §§ 93, 94. PECULIAR SOUNDS of consonants. 

§ 93. The peculiar sound of these consonants which is re- 
ferred to is commonly called nasal, because it is uttered, as 
we say, through the nose. It is nearly, if not quite, impossi- 
ble to describe this sound so that one who has not heard it 
can imitate it with much precision ; and indeed it is very diffi- 
cult to attain it exactly, even with the aid of a vocal pattern. 
The nearest resemblance to it in English enunciation is the 
sound of ng in such words as sang, sing, song, sung. Per- 
haps the difference between the sound of ng in these words 
and that of the French nasal m or n cannot be at all appre- 
ciated by most persons from any attempt at description. 
Probably most must have recourse to oral example. Some, 
however, it is possible, may not find the following statement 
utterly useless.* 

§ 94. From careful attention in pronouncing slowly the 
English words which I have mentioned {sang, etc.), dwelling 
long enough upon the vowel in each word to make the enun- 
ciation of the succeeding consonants apparent, it can be per- 
ceived, I think, that just before closing the sound of the con- 
sonants there is a pressure of the middle part of the tongue 
against the roof of the mouth, which nearly or quite stops 
the sound of the voice. Now, the peculiarity of the French 
nasal sound in question consists mainly, I think, in not thus 
shutting up the sound of the English ng by the pressure 
which I have mentioned. The speaker commences the ng, 
proceeding considerably beyond the preceding vowel, but he 
does not fairly go through with the English sound. Instead 
of shutting up the voice as in English, he retains a sound 
which may be prolonged at pleasure. I should say further, 



* A mode of obtaining this sound less elegant than that winch I 
am about to describe, but perhaps not less certain, is to hold the nose 
entirely stopped and then sound a vowel nasally, i. e. allowing the 
sound to enter the upper part of the nose and proceed as far as it can 
while the nose is stopped below. Begin in this way with the French 
vowel a, then try e, then others. Then try to utter the same sound 
without holding the nose. 



§§ 94 — 99. PECULIAR SOUNDS OF CONSONANTS. 35 

that not only the nasal consonant sound, but the preceding 
vowel, is pronounced in French lower down in the throat 
than in English. 

§ 95. The following rules, with the accompanying state- 
ment of exceptions, will, it is supposed, determine when the 
letters m and n have, and when they have not, this peculiar 
nasal sound in French. 

§ 96. Rule I. The letters m and n when immediately 
preceded by a vowel and followed by a consonant are pro- 
nounced nasally ; e. g. ambre, amber, ancre, anchor, dent, 
tooth, insulte, insult, onde, wave, umble, umber, junie, junto. 

§ 97. Except. I. When m or n is doubled, their sound is 
not nasal, but like the English m or n; e. g. immortality im- 
mortality, immemorial, immemorial, ammoniac, ammoniac, 
solennel, solemn, innover, to innovate, comioissance, knowl- 
edge, innombrable, innumerable.* 

§ 98. Exc. II. The letter m preceded by a is never nasal 
in the following words, nor, also, in any derivatives from 
them : Abraham, Abraham, Ammon, Ammon, amnistie, am- 
nesty, Amsterdam, Amsterdam, mammillaire, belonging to 
the breasts, Priam, Priam, Roboam, Rehoboam. 

§ 99. Exc. III. The letter m preceded by e is never nasal 
in the following words, nor, also, in any derivatives from 

* In words beginning with emm, however, which are compounded 
of en and some other word, the en being changed to cm on account 
of the following m, the first m is nasal, as n would be before m. 
Such are the following words, with their derivatives : emmener, to 
carry away, remmener, to carry back, emmagasiner, to store, emmaii- 
l otter, to swathe, cmmanchcr, to haft, emmanteler, to cover with a 
cloak, emmariner, to man a ship, cmmtnagcr, to provide furniture, 
emmieller, to flatter, emmitovfler, to muffle up, emmortaiser, to mor- 
tise, cmmuseler, to muzzle. 

w3o, too, in the following words the first of the two ns is sounded 
nasal: ennui, ennui, ennuyer, to weary, cnrtuyeux, w T earisome, s'en- 
nuiter, to get benighted, ennoblir, to ennoble, hennir, to neigh, with 
any compounds or other derivatives from these words. 



36 §§ 99 105. PECULIAR SOUNDS OF CONSONANTS. 

them : Agamemnon, Agamemnon, Bethleem, Bethlehem, Cli- 
temnestre, Clitemnestra, decemvir, decemvir, dilemme, dilem- 
ma, Emmanuel, Emmanuel, Emmons, Emmaus, gemme (an 
epithet for mine-salt), harem, harem, Haarlem, Haarlem, 
hem ! hem ! idem, idem, indcmniser, to indemnify, indem- 
nity, indemnity, item, item, Jerusalem, Jerusalem, lemme, 
lemma, Memnon, Memnon, Memphis, Memphis, novemvir, 
novemvir, Salem, Salem, septemvir, septemvir. 

§ 100. Exc. IV. The letter m preceded by i is never na- 
sal in the following foreign words : Ephraim, Ibrahim, inti- 
rim, ISdim, parnassim, Selim. 

§ 101. Exc. V. The letter m preceded by o is never na- 
sal in the following words, nor, also, in any derivatives from 
them : automnal, autumnal, calomnie, calumny, insomnie, 
want of rest, somnambule, somnambulist, somnifere, somnife- 
rous, somnolence, somnolency. 

^ 102. Exc. VI. The letter m preceded by u is never na- 
sal in the following foreign words : album, criterium, deco- 
rum, dictum, factum, forum, geranium, ladanum, laudanum, 
mtdium, minium, opium, palladium, postscriptum, quinquen- 
nium. 

§ 103. Exc. VII. The letter m preceded by y is not nasal 
in the word hymne, hymn. 

§ 104. Exc. VIII. The letter n preceded by e is never 
nasal in the following words, nor, also, in any derivatives 
from them : abdomen, abdomen, amen, amen, ben (name of 
an Arabian oil), Eden, Eden, endecagone, endecagon, ensi- 
forme, ensiform, examen, examination, gramen, grass, hymen, 
hymen, lichen, lichen, Pensilvanie, Pennsylvania, pollen, pol- 
len, solen, kind of shell-work. 

§ 105. Rule II. The letters m and n when immediately 
preceded and followed by a vowel arc not nasal ; e. g. ami- 
tU, friendship, Emilie, Emiiy, imiter, to imitate, haine, ha- 
tred, ontreux, onerous, univers \ universe.* 

* Hence the masculine of* nouns ending in n preceded by a vowel 



§§ 106 — 109. PECULIAR SOUNDS OF VOWELS. 37 

$ 106. Exc. I. The letter n has a nasal sound in the 
words, enivrer, to intoxicate, enorgueillir, to puff up, as also 
in all derivatives from them. These words are sounded ex- 
actly as if there were two rc's instead of one ; n nasal belong- 
ing to the first syllable, and the common English n being 
sounded with the vowel in the second syllable. Thus, they 
are pronounced as ennui, etc. (See note to § 97.) 

PECULIAR SOUNDS OF VOWELS FROM CONNECTION 
WITH CONSONANTS. 

§ 107. e. (a) This letter, when it is followed by m or n 
nasal (see §§ 93 seq.) is sounded always (with the exception 
mentioned in the next section,) precisely as the French a 
(•§ 5); e. g. emploi, employment, emmener, to cany away, 
pensee, thought, patience, patience, en, in, Rouen, Rouen. 

§ 108. e. (b) This letter, when it is preceded by i and fol- 
lowed by n nasal, at the end of a word or in any inflection of 
verbs whose Infinitive ends in enir, is sounded nearly as a in 
the English word hang, or, more exactly, between this sound 
and that of e in the English word strength; e. g. mien, mine, 
rien, nothing, lien, band, Chretien, Christian, il vient, he 
comes, il tiendra, he will hold, ye reviens, I return.* 

§ 109. e. (c) This letter, when followed by double m or 
double n, is always pronounced as in the last section ; e. g. 

has a nasal termination, while in the feminine, formed by the addi- 
tion of e, the n is sounded as in English : e. g. (rnasc.) sain, (fern.) 
saine, healthy; (masc.) fin, (fern.) fine, fine; (masc.) cousin, (fern.) 
cousine, cousin. 

* The case is the same in the plurals of nouns whose singular 
ends with en; e. g. in miens, liens, and Chretiens, plurals of three 
words above mentioned. The letter e is not sounded thus, however, 
in gens, talens, encens, etc. plurals of gent, nation, talent, talent, en- 
cens, incense, etc. because the singular does not terminate w T ith en. — 
Compounds of such words as end in n nasal preceded by ic retain the 
sound above assigned to e ; e. g. biensdance, decency, bientot, soon. 

4 



38 §§ 109 — 116. PECULIAR SOUNDS OF VOWELS. 

femme, woman, femmelette, little woman, ardemment, ardently 
(and all adverbs ending in emment), hennir, to neigh, nenni, 
no, solennel, solemn. So also in indemniser, to indemnify. 

§ 110. e. (d) This letter, when followed by r in the same 
syllable at the end of a word, is sounded like ai in the Eng- 
lish word air, unless the r be silent (§ 150). Thus, in aimer 
a continuer en dijficulte, to love to continue in difficulty, the 
syllable er is pronounced in both instances like the English 
word air. 

§ 111. e. (e) This letter, without an accent, when fol- 
lowed by a silent consonant at the end of a w r ord, is sounded 
like a in the English word fate ; e. g. aimer, to love, danger, 
danger, les, the, mes, my. 

§ 112. i. This letter, when followed by m or n nasal 
(§ 92 seq.), has a sound like that of e in § 108, i. e. between 
the sound of a in the English word hang and that of e in the 
English word strength; e. g. impur, impure, impropre, im- 
proper, enfin, at last, benin, benigne, infame, infamous. 

§ 113. u. (a) This letter, when followed by m or n nasal, 
is sounded like the compound vowel eu (§ 23), i. e. nearly 
as u in the English word turn ; e. g. un, a, parfum, perfume, 
brun, brown, commun, common. 

§ 114. u. (b) This letter, followed by m, whether nasal 
or not (§ 92 seq.), is sounded as o in the English word com- 
ma, in the following foreign words, and also in any deriva- 
tives from them : album, centumvir, criterium, decorum, dic- 
tum, duumvir, factum, forum, geranium, maximum, medium, 
minimum, minium, museum, opium, palladium, pensum, posi- 
scriptum, triumvir, rhumb. 

§ 115. u. (c) This letter, followed by nasal n, is sounded 
as o in the English word song in the words, juncaire (name 
of a plant), junte, junto, nuncupatif verbal, nundinal, nundi- 
nal, opuntia (name of an Indian fig-tree). 

§116. ai. (a) This compound vowel, when followed by 
liquid I, nasal m, or nasal n, is pronounced as c in § 108, and 



§§ 116 — 124. SILENT VOWELS. 39 

i in § 111, i. e. between a in the English word hang and e in 
the English word strength; e. g.faillir, to fail, bail, lease, 
caillou, flint, faim, hunger, crainte, fear. 

§ 117. ai. (b) This compound vowel, when followed by 
r, is sounded as ai in the English word air ; e. g.faire, to 
do, plaire, to please. 

§ 118. au. This compound vowel, when followed by r, 
is sounded as au in the English word auricular ; e. g. Moure, 
Moor, aurore, dawn. 

§ 119. eu This compound vowel, when followed by na- 
sal m or nasal n, is sounded as e in § 108, i in § 111, and ai 
in § 116, i. e. between a in the English word hang and e in 
the English word strength; e. g. Rheims, TLheims, plei?i, full. 

§ 120. eei and uei. These combinations of vowels, when 
followed by /, are sounded like the compound vowel eu 
(§ 23), the I being sounded liquid (§ 48. a.) ; e. g. ml, eye, 
accueil, reception, ecueil, rock, enorgueillir, to make proud, 
orgueil, pride, recueil, collection, and all the many derivatives 
from these words. 

§ 121. oi. This diphthong, when followed by n, is not 
sounded as usual. The o is pronounced as directed in § 34, 
but the i is pronounced as directed in § 112 ; e. g. coin, cor- 
ner, soin, care. 

§ 122. It may be stated as a general principle of pronun- 
ciation, that, when a vowel sound is followed by a consonant, 
the vowel-sound is longer than it would otherwise be ; e. g. 
faimai, faimais, I loved. 

SILENCE OF VOWELS. 

§ 123. a. This vowel is silent in the following words : 
aoriste, aorist, Aoiit, August, Saone (name of a river), saoul, 
tipsy, taon, gad-fly, and in all derivatives from these. So 
also in words from a foreign language which begin with the 
diphthong a; e. g. 2Esope, ^Esop, etc. 

§124. e. (a) This vowel is always silent when it occurs un- 



40 §§ 124 — 129. SILENT VOWELS. 

accented at the end of a word after another vowel ; e. g. an* 
n£e t year, amie, friend, plaie, wound, vote, way, laitue, let- 
tuce, queue, tm\ f je paye, I pay.* 

§ 125. e. (b) This vowel is always silent when it occurs 
unaccented before the vowel a or o ; e. g. il gagea, he betted, 
geai, jay, Jean, John, mangeant, eating, doucedtre, sweetish, 
chapeau, hat, flageolet, flageolet, geole, gaol, asseoir, to set, 
villager* is, villager.f 

§126. e. (c) This vowel occurring before wis silent: (1) 
always when the u has a circumflex accent ; e. g.jeune, fast : 

(2) in all the forms of the verb avoir, to have, in which eu oc- 
curs ; e. g. eu, exit, eumes, eiltes, eurent, eussions, etc. : and 

(3) in the three words, gageure, bet, mangeure, hole eaten in 
anything, vergeure (technical term with pa per- makers).;): 

§ 127. e. (d) This vowel is silent in all substantives end- 
ing in ement immediately preceded by a vowel ; e. g. cruci- 
fiement, crucifixion, denotement, diarrhoea, denouement, catas- 
trophe, denuement, deprivation. 

§ 128. e. This vowel is silent in the termination ent of 
the third person plural of any tense of a verb (as are also 
the subsequent consonants, nt, § 167) ; e. g. Us parlent, they 
speak, Us chantoient, they sang. 

§ 129. It may be stated as a general principle, that, when 

* In the three following words, however: Andaye, Biscay e, Blaye. 
the e is slightly heard, as in the English word over, the ye forming a 
syllable distinct from the preceding a. The accent falls upon the a 
in these words. 

t In some of these cases, it is to be noticed, the e, though silent, 
has an important effect on the sound of the word, for where g occurs 
before the e the g would be hard, were it not fur the intervention of 
the e. The same silence of the c and a similar effect on the sound 
of the g are seen in the English \xw& pigeon. 

X In these three words the g % which would otherwise be hard, is 
made soft by the silent c, as in the instances mentioned in the pre- 
ceding section. 



^ 129 135. SILENT CONSONANTS. 41 

the vowel e is silent after another vowel, it lengthens the pre- 
vious vowel ; e. g. vie, life, vue, sight. 

§ 130. i. This vowel is silent in the following words : 
bouvreuil, bulfinch, cerfeuil, chervil, chevre-feuille, honey- 
suckle, chevreuil, roe-buck, deuil, mourning, ecureuil, squir- 
rel, encoignure, corner, fauteuil, elbow-chair, fenouil, fennel, 
feuille, leaf, oignon, onion, reseuil, net, seuil, threshold. 

§ 131. o. This vowel is silent in the words faon, fawn, 
Laon (a French town), paon, peacock, and in all words in 
which ce occurs, such as (Edipe, (Edipus, ozsophage, oesopha- 
gus, oeuvre, work, cceur, heart, soeur, sister. 

§ 132. u. This vowel, immediately preceded by g or q 
and immediately followed by a vowel, is most frequently si- 
lent ; e. g. il conjugua, he conjugated, guerir, to heal, langue, 
tongue, guide, guide, quaniiU, quantity, question, question, 
queue, tail, quitter, to quit.* 

SILENCE OF CONSONANTS. 

§ 133. I shall consider separately each consonant and each 
combination of consonants which is ever silent. It is to be 
observed, that, if a consonant is silent at the end of a word in 
the singular number, it is also silent in the plural of that word, 
though another consonant be added to form the plural. 

§ 134. b. This letter is always silent in plomb, lead, and 
its derivatives, such as surplomb, aplomb. Elsewhere it is 
sounded. 

§ 135. c. This letter is silent at the end of the words, 
accroc, rent, almanac, almanac, banc, bank, Mane, white, 

* For a considerable list of words in which n is silent, see App. B. 
For a considerable list of words in which u is pronounced as part of 
a diphthong, see App. A. It is to be observed that silent u standing 
between g and e makes the g hard, which would otherwise be soft ; 
e. g. above in guirir and langue. 
4* 



42 §§ 135—141. SILENT CONSONANTS. 

broc, great jug, clerc, clerk, cotignac, marmalade, eric, en- 
gine for lifting, done, therefore, estomac, stomach, fane, flank, 
franc, free, j one, rush, marc, mark, pore, pork, tronc, trunk.* 

§ 136. d. This letter is silent at the end of all words ex- 
cept the following : Old, Cid, ephod, ephod, Sud, South, to- 
gether with any proper names ending in d; e. g. David, La- 
med, Sund, Talmud. However, when it is preceded by n, 
and the next word begins with a vowel or h mute, it is sounded 
like / ; e. g. grand homme, great man, vend-ill- does he sell ? 
So, too, in the expression pied-a-terre. (Comp. § 42.) 

§ 137. f This letter is silent only at the end of the words, 
baillif, bailiff, cerf, stag, clef, key, Ueuf, tennis-ball, and in 
the compounds, cerf -volant, horned beetle, chef-d'oeuvre, mas- 
ter-piece, azvf-frais, fresh egg. 

§138. g. This letter is silent: (1) always at the end of the 
words etang, pond, hareng, herring, long, long, oing, cart- 
grease, poing, fist, rang, rank, sang, blood, seing, signature ; 
(2) in all words compounded with bourg, (except bourg-mes- 
ire), as Edinbourg, Edinburgh, faubourg, suburb, Luxem- 
bourg, Peter sbourg, Bourg-Vabbe, Bourg-la-reine,e\c. (Comp. 
§§ 44. c. and 64) ; and (3) in doigtier, thumbstall, and other 
derivatives of doigt, finger, Regnard, Regnard, RegJiault,Reg- 
naull, sang-froid, cold blood, sang-sue, leech, signet, tassel. 

§ 139. h. (a) This letter is very often silent at the be- 
ginning of words ; e. g. habile, clever, heure, hour. (See a 
list of the words beginning with silent h, in Appendix C.) 

§ 140. h. (b) This letter is always silent when it follows 
a vowel in the same syllable ; e. g. ah ! ah ! bah ! bah ! 

§ 141. h. (c) This letter is always silent after g in the 

* But in cric-crac, crick-crack, croc-eii-jambe, trip, franc-ttovrdi, 
harebrain, porc-tpic, porcupine, the c is sounded. In arc-boutant, 
buttress, the c is silent. In sccquc, sandal, the c may be considered 
as silent. 



§§ 141 — 151. SILENT CONSONANTS. 43 

same syllable ; e.g. Borghese, Berghem, Enghien (all proper 
names). 

§ 142. h. (d) This letter is always silent after r in the 
same syllable ; e. g. rheteur, rhetorician, Rlu)ne, Rhone, rhu- 
barbe, rhubarb. 

§ 143. h. (e) This letter is always silent after t in the 
same syllable ; e. g. Demosthene, Demosthenes, the, tea, Eli- 
zabeth, Elizabeth, methode, method, arithmttique, K arithmetic. 

§ 144. Z. This letter is silent at the end of the following 
words : baril, barrel, chenil, dog-kennel, coutil, ticking, cul, 
bottom, fertile hay-loft, fraisil, cinder, fusil, firelock, gentil, 
heathen, gril, gridiron, nombril, navel, outil, tool, persil, 
parsley, soul, drunk, sourcil, eye-brow. So, too, in fits, son, 
distinguished from fils, plural of fil, thread, in which the I is 
sounded. In Us, also, the I is suppressed by many before a 
word beginning with a vowel, as in Us out, they have. 

§ 145. m. This letter is silent in automne, autumn, dam- 
ner, to damn, solemniser, to solemnize, and in all compounds 
or other derivatives from these words. 

§ 146. n. This letter is silent in the word Monsieur, Sir. 

§ 147. p. (a) This letter is silent in bapteme, baptism, 
cheptel, loan of cattle, compter, to count, dompter, to subdue, 
exempter, to exempt, promjite, prompt, sculpter, to sculpture, 
sept, seven, and in all the compounds and other derivatives 
from these words. 

§ 148. p. (b) This letter is always silent at the end of a 
word, except in Alep, Aleppo, cap, cape, cep, vine, Gap, 
Gap, jalap, jalap, julep, julep. 

§ 149. q. This letter is silent at the end of the words 
cinq, five, and coq, cock. 

^ 150. r. This letter is silent at the end of the word 
Monsieur, Sir, and in most words ending in er. For a list of 
words ending in er in which it is sounded, see Appendix D. 

§ 151. s. (a) This letter is always silent before ch in the 
same syllable ; e. g. Schall (proper name), scheling, shilling, 
schisme, schism. 



44 §§ 152 — 164. SILENT CONSONANTS. 

§ 152. s. (b) This letter is silent in desquels, of which, 
lesquels, which, Desfontaines, Destonches, and other proper 
names compounded of des. 

§ 153. s. (c) This letter is silent at the end of all words 
except those of which a list is given in Appendix E. It is 
therefore always silent when added as a plural termination. 

§ 154. t. This letter is silent at the end of all words ex- 
cept those of which a list is given in Appendix F. 

§ 155. x. This letter is silent at the end of all words ex- 
cept those enumerated in § 74. Obs. XVI. It is therefore 
always silent when added as a plural termination. 

§ 156. z. This letter is silent at the end of all words ex- 
cept those enumerated in § 76. Obs. XVIII. 

§ 157. ch. These letters are silent at the end of the word 
almanack^ almanac. 

§ 158. cs. These letters are silent at the end of the word 
lacs, noose. 

§ 159. ct. These letters are silent at the end of the words, 
amict, amice, aspect, aspect, circonspect, circumspect, dis- 
tinct, distinct, instinct, instinct, respect, respect, suspect, sus- 
pected.* 

§ 160. fs. These letters are both silent at the end of the 
plural words, beevfs, oxen, nerfs, nerves, neufs, new, ceiifs, 
eggs, though thesis sounded in the singular. 

§ 161. gs. These letters are silent at the end of the word 
legs, legacy. 

§ 162. gl. These letters are silent at the end of the words 
doigt, finger, and vingt, twenty. 

§ 163. Id, These letters are silent at the end of proper 
names ; e. g. Arnauld. 

§ 164. Is. These letters are silent at the end of the word 
pouls, pulse. 

* When, however, the ct is followed by c, as in the feminine of 
any of these words, the consonants are both sounded ; e. g. in cirrim- 
spectc, distiactc, guspectt. 



§§ 165 — 174. SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 45 

§ 165. It. These letters are silent at the end of proper 
names ; e. g. Dessault, Gueroult, Rochefoucault. 

§ 166. Ix. These letters are silent at the end of the word 
aulx, plural of ail, garlic. 

§ 167. nt. These letters are silent in the termination ent 
of the third person plural in any tense of a verb (Comp. § 
128) ; e. g. Us aiment, they love, ilsfurent, they were, quails 
eussent, that they might have. 

§ 168. ph. These letters are silent at the beginning of the 
word phthisie, phthisic. 

§ 169. ps. These letters are silent at the end of the words, 
corps, body, romps, break (first pers. sing. pres. indie, of 
rompre, to break), and in compounds of the latter, as cor- 
romps, corrupt, etc. 

§ 170. pi. These letters are silent at the end of the words, 
prompt, prompt, rompt, breaks (third pers. sing. pres. indie. 
of rompre, to break), and in compounds of the latter, a3 in- 
izrrcmpi, interrupts, etc. 

§ 171. rs. These letters are silent at the end of the word 
Messieurs, plural of Monsieur, Sir. 

§ 172. st. These letters are silent at the end of the word 
est, is (third pers. sing. pres. indie, of eire, to be),* and at 
the end of Christ, Christ, when it is immediately preceded by 
Jesus, Jesus. When Christ is alone, these letters are sounded. 

§ 173. th. These letters are silent in the words, aslhne, 
asthma, i'sthme, isthme, and any derivatives from these. 

SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

§ 174. French syllables are divided into two classes, mas- 
culine and feminine. A feminine syllable is one ending with 
an unaccented e ; all other syllables are masculine. Thus in 
rose, rose, (which the French regard as consisting of two 
syllables, not, as it is regarded in English, of only one,) the 
first syllable, ro, is a masculine syllable, the last, se, is femi- 

* In est, east, these consonants are not silent. 



46 §§ 174 — 178. SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

nine. In exercice, exercise, which is considered as having 
three syllables, the first and second, ex, er, are masculine, 
the third, ce, feminine. In pelu, hairy, the first syllable is 
feminine, the other masculine.* 

§ 175. The e of feminine syllables is generally sounded 
very lightly, if at all, in French. Indeed, the word rose, for 
example, is commonly pronounced almost exactly as in Eng- 
lish, excepting the difference in sounding the o (§ 11). In 
verse, before a word commencing with a vowel the ^ of a 
feminine syllable would not be heard at all ; before a conso- 
nant euphony generally requires a slight enunciation. Thus, 
in the following line of Boileau : 

" Sans meniir, L 'avarice est une etrange rages" 
Certainly avarice is a strange madness, 

the e in the feminine syllables of avarice and une is entirely 
silent, but in the feminine syllable of etrange, euphony re- 
quires that it should be slightly sounded before the consonant 
with which the next word, rage, commences. In prose sup- 
press the e of the feminine syllable as much as possible ; 
e. g. venir, to come, soutenir, to sustain. 

§ 176. Where two or more feminine syllables occur to- 
gether, the e in the first is to be sounded distinctly, and that 
in the other or others suppressed ; e. g. devenir, to become, 
revenir, to return, ne le vendez pas, do not sell it. 

§ 177. In case three or more feminine syllables occur 
consecutively, the e in the first and third only is distinctly- 
enunciated ; e. g. je ne me vendais pas, I did not sell myself, 
je rt ai plus de ce que je vendais, I have no more of what I 
sold. 

§ 178. When any single final consonant, which would be 

* The word amiable in English affords an example of syllabic 
usage much like that in French spoken of above. This is called a 
word of four syllables. The first three are masculine, the last is 
feminine. 



$$ 178—182. emphasis. 47 

silent according to the rules that have been given, is followed 
by a word beginning with a vowel or h mute, and there is no 
punctuation-mark between them or other reason for separating 
them in utterance, the consonant is always sounded ; e. g, 
cinqfemmes ont ete ici, five women have been here (§§ 153, 
154). The conjunction et, and, is an exception, the t never 
being sounded in this word even before a vowel ; e. g. je 
mis frere et ami, I am brother and friend. Also before the 
words onze, eleven, onzieme, eleventh, a consonant is never 
sounded ; e. g. vers les onze heures, about eleven o'clock. 

§ 179. When two final consonants, both of which would be 
silent according to the rules that have been given, are followed 
by a word beginning with a vowel or h mute, only the last of 
the two consonants is sounded ; e. g. Vaspect est effroyable, 
the aspect is frightful (§ 159 and 172), je ne romps aucune 
promesse, I break no promise (§ 169), Us se lient ensemble, 
they connect themselves with each other (§ 167). 

§ 180. When a word ending with a nasal m or n is fol- 
lowed by another beginning with a vowel or h mute, and 
there is no punctuation-mark between the two words, the final 
consonant of the first word loses its nasal sound and is united 
with the vowel commencing the second word ; e. g. bon ami, 
good friend, Men utile, very useful. N. B. The sound of the 
vowel preceding m or n is not changed in these cases. 

EMPHASIS. 

§ 181. By emphasis is meant here the stress laid on a par- 
ticular syllable in a word. This is more properly, and in 
English more commonly, called accent; but 1 prefer not to 
use this word, as it is the name of certain little but important 
French marks, of which I shall speak in the next chapter. 
The following rules will show where the emphasis belongs in 
French words. 

§ 182. Rule I. In dissyllables composed of a masculine 
and a feminine syllable, whichever precedes, the emphasis 



48 §§ 182—188. ORTHOGRAPHY. 

belongs to the masculine ; e. g. plume, pen, livre, book (in 
both which the stress is on the first syllable), cheval, horse, 
venin, poison (in both which the stress is on the last syllable). 

§ 183. Rule II. In dissyllables composed of two mascu- 
line syllables, stress is laid on the second rather more than 
on the first, though the difference is not by any means so 
striking as in cases falling under the preceding rule ; e. g. 
chapeau, hat, canij\ penknife. 

§ 184. Rule HI. In words composed of two or more fem- 
inine syllables with one masculine, the stress belongs to the 
masculine syllable ; e. g. retenir, to retain, redevenir, to be- 
come again.* 

§ 185. Rule IV. In words composed of several mascu- 
line syllables the stress is usually laid on the last ; e. g. am- 
bition, ambition, Uendard, standard, maitriser, to master. 

§ 186. Rule V. The emphasis is never to be laid upon a 
feminine syllable. Though, according to § 176, tne fi fst 
feminine syllable in redevenir, to become again, is sounded 
more distinctly than the second or third, yet the real emphasis 
is on the last syllable, as stated in § 184. 



CHAP. III. 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 



SYLLABLES. 

§ 187. When a single consonant, or a combination of two 
or more consonants that might naturally be sounded together 
at the beginning of a word, occurs between two vowels which 
belong to different syllables, the consonants arc to be spelt 
with the last vowel ; e. g. ci-vi-il-te, civility, vi-si-te, visit. 

§ 188. When two or more consonants that cannot naturally 

* There are no words in French composed of, or ending with*, two 
or more feminine syllables. 



§§ 188—192. ORTHOGRAPHY. 49 

be sounded together occur between two vowels which belong 
to different syllables, the first consonant is to be spelt with 
the first vowel, the other or others with the last ; e. g. ad-mi- 
ra-tion, admiration, 1 con-struc-tion, construction, des-ser-vir, 
to clear the table* 
* 

LETTERS. 

§ 189. The capital letters are used in French in all cases 
in which they are used in English, excepting that the pronoun 
of the first person, je, is generally written without one, and 
that in some books they are not used at the beginning of ad- 
jectives formed from proper names ;* oui,je vous aime, yes, 
I love you, c'est un livrefranpais, it is a French book. 

§ 190. For the sake of euphony the letter t is inserted be- 
tween a verb ending with a vowel and a pronoun following 
which begins with a vowel ; e. g. a-t-il, has he, dira-t-on, 
will they say. This insertion makes no change in the sense. 
Its sole object is to avoid what is called a hiatus in the occur- 
rence of two vowel-sounds together. 

§ 191. For the same reason the- letter I with an apostrophe 
is often inserted between the words et, ou, or ow, que, qui, and 
si, (ending with a vowel-sound) and the pronoun on; e. g. et 
Von dit, and they say, il faut que Von consenie, they must 
consent, si Von nous entendait, if they heard us, on pent alter 
oil Von veul, one may go "where one wishes. 

§ 192. For the same reason the letter s is sometimes added 
to quatre, four, in connection with yeux, eyes, though quatre 
is of itself plural ; thus, quatres yeux, four eyes. The pro- 
nunciation is always as if an s were inserted, even though 
none appear in the orthography. 

* This remark applies only to cases when these words do not com- 
mence a sentence. 



50 §§ 193—198. ORTHOGRAPHY. 



ACCENTS. 

§ 193. The French accents are three in number, the 
acute ( ' ), the grave ( ' ), and the circumflex ( A ). 

§ 194. The acute accent is never placed over any other 
letter than e; and, as has been stated (§7), indicates that 
that vowel is to be sounded like a in the English word ale. 

§ 195. The grave accent seldom occurs over any other 
letter than e, and, as has been stated (§ 8), it indicates that 
that vowel is to be sounded as the first e in the English word 
there. The grave accent is placed over a and u in a few 
words, to distinguish them from others spelt in the same way. 
Thus <x, to, is distinguished from «, has ; Za, there, from Za, 
the ; ow, where, from ou, or. It is also used over the a in pa 
and its compound, dega, on this side, though there are no 
other words spelt like them. 

§ 196. The circumflex accent is usually placed over a 
vowel which was formerly doubled or followed by an 5; e. g. 
age, age, formerly aage ; apotre, apostle, formerly aposlre ; 
hite, beast, formerly besle ; epilre, epistle, formerly epistre ; 
Ure, to be, formerly estre. As has been stated (§ 19), this 
accent indicates that the vowel has a peculiarly long sound. 

§ 197. The circumflex accent is placed over certain words 
to distinguish them from others of the same form. Thus, it 
occurs over the last syllable of the third pers. sing, imperfect 
subjunctive, to distinguish it from the preterite indicative ; 
c. g. quHl parldt, quHl fid. So tfd, owed, is distinguished 
from du, of the ; crii, growed, from cru, believed ; w«r, ripe, 
from mm\ wall ; siir, sure, from sur, upon, and swr, sour. 

Other marks. 
§ 198. Cedilla. This mark does not occur in English. 
It is a kind of comma, sometimes placed under the c before 



§§ 198 — 202. ORTHOGRAPHY. 51 

a, o, or u, and, as has been stated (§ 41. b.), denotes that the 
c has a soft sound ; as, e. g., in j agon , fashion, Jepw, deceived. 

§ 199. Apostrophe. This is the same as the English apos- 
trophe. In French it always denotes what is called the eli- 
sion, i. e. the suppression, of a vowel before another vowel or 
h mute. Then the consonant preceding the suppressed vowel 
is to be sounded with the next word. Only the vowels a, e, 
t, are subject to elision. 

§ 200. The vowel a is elided always and only in the word 
la, whether article or pronoun, when it occurs before a word 
beginning with a vowel or h mute ; e. g. Vame, the soul, 
Vitude, the study, Vidole, the idol, V orange, the orange, Vuii- 
lite, the utility, V karmonie, the harmony, je Tax vue, I have 
seen her.* 

§ 201. The vowel e is elided in the following words, ce, 
de, entre, je, le, me, ne, que, se, te, and all compounds of que, 
such as parceque, quelque, quoique, etc., when they occur be- 
fore a word beginning with a vowel or h mute ; e. g. c^est a 
moi, it is mine, d^avoir, to have, entr*eux, among them, fax, 
I have, il Va, he has it, Vhomme, the man, il nx* oblige, he 
obliges me, il tfest qu'homme, he is only man, il s^aime, he 
loves himself, il Caime, he loves thee, c^est parcequ'il Va dit, 
it is because he has said it.f 

§ 202. The vowel e is also often elided in the word grande, 

* When, however, la occurs after a verb, as its object, the a is not 
elided, unless it be followed immediately by en or y ; e. g. donnez-la 
a ma saiur, give her to my sister, but, jettcz-Cy, throw it there. Be- 
fore onzieme, too, la suffers no elision. (Comp. note below). 

t But when either of these words follows the verb to which it be- 
longs, the e is not elided ; e. g. dites-le a mon frtre, tell it to my 
brother, vous suis-jc oblige"? am I obliged to you? est-ce un homme? 
is it a man ? From this remark le must be excepted when followed 
by en or y ; e. g. reprcncz ten, chide him for it. Before onze, eleven, 
onzieme, eleventh, and oui, yes, there is no elision of any word ; 
e. g. le onze, eleven, le onzieme, the eleventh, il ne dit que oui, he 
says only yes, 



52 §§202—206. orthography. 

(fern, of grand, great,) before a substantive beginning with a 
consonant; e. g. grand' chambre, great chamber, grand' chere, 
great cheer, grand' chose, great thing, grand' faim, great hun- 
ger, etc. 

§ 203. The vowel i is elided only in the word si, if, before 
il or Us ; e. g. s'il voas plait, if you please, s'ils viennent, if 
they come. We must write, si elle vient, if she comes. 

§ 204. Dicer esis. This consists of two dots placed over e, 
i, or u, to denote that they are not silent and do not form a 
diphthong or compound vowel with the vowel which pre- 
cedes ; e. g. poete, poet, naivete, simplicity, Said, Saul.* 

§ 205. Hyphen. This mark is the same in French as in 
English. It is not only used in French, as in English, to 
connect the parts of compound words (e. g. tout-puissant , al- 
mighty, arc-en-ciel, rainbow), but moreover it always con- 
nects the personal pronouns, as also en, y, ce, on, with the 
verb to which they belong, ichen that verb immediately pre- 
cedes them; e. g. puis-je? can I? donnez-moi, give me, 
entends-tu? dost thou hear? croit-il? does he grow ? est-ce 
vous ? is it you ? vas-y, go there.t 

§ 206. The common marks of punctuation, viz. the comma, 
semicolon, colon, period, interrogation, note of admiration, 
note of exclamation, parenthesis, quotation-marks, etc., are 
the same in French as in English. 

* The diaeresis sometimes put over the e in aigu&, sharp, and 
some other words ending in we, is designed to show that the ue is not 
silent as in tongue, long, and many otherwords, but is sounded very 
long. 

t In case a t is inserted between the verb and following pronoun 
(§ 190), tiie hyphen is used to connect the verb with the t and the t 
with the pronoun ; e. g. a-t-il? has he? 



i 



§§ 207 — 209. FORMS OF WORDS. 53 

PART II. 
FORMS OF WORDS. 

General Remarks. 

§ 207. The parts of speech in French are the same in 
number and in name as in English. The Adverb, Preposi- 
tion, Conjunction, and Interjection will be considered together 
under the head of Particles ; the other parts of speech will 
be treated of separately, in the following order : Article, Sub- 
stantive, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb* 

CHAP. I. 

ARTICLE. 

VARIATION. 

§ 208. In French, as in English, there are two Articles, 
the Definite and the Indefinite. The Definite Article has two 
Numbers, the singular and the plural, and two Genders in the 
singular, the masculine and the feminine, he is the form for 
the masculine singular ; la for the feminine singular ; and les 
for both genders in the plural. The Indefinite Article has, 
as a matter of course, no plural ; it has two genders in the 
singular, un being the masculine form, and une the feminine. 
Thus, e. g., le prince, the prince, la femme, the woman, les 
hommes, the men, un livre, a book, une actrice, an actress. 

§ 209. If the masculine or feminine singular of the Defi- 
nite Article be immediately followed by a word which com- 
mences with a vowel or h mute, the final vowel of the Article 
is elided and an apostrophe inserted (see §§ 199, 200, 201) ; 

* Whenever the word noun is used in this Grammar it is to be 
understood as comprehending both substantive and adjective, 

5* 



54 §§ 209—213. article. 

e. g. Vhomme, the man, not le homme ; Vdme, the soul, not la 
dme. 

§ 210. In many cases, when the Definite Article is accom- 
panied by the preposition de or a, the preposition and Article 
are united in one word by a peculiar contraction. Thus de 
le, before a word beginning with a consonant, is contracted 
into du r and a le, in the same situation, into au ; de les in the 
plural is always contracted into des, and a les always into 
aux. In these cases the uncontracted forms are never used, 
and in no other cases are the contractions mentioned allowa- 
ble. Thus, e. g., du prince, of the prince, au prince, to the 
prince, des grands princes, of the great princes, aux plus 
grands princes, to the greatest princes, 

DETERMINATION OF FORM. 

§ 211. From what has been said of the various forms 
which the articles take, we may deduce the following state- 
ment respecting their use : 

Un : Before any noun masculine singular ; 

Une: Before any noun feminine singular. 

Le, Au % Du : Before a noun masculine singular beginning 

with a consonant ; 
L\ AH, De F: Before a noun either masculine or femi- 
nine singular beginning with a vowel or h mute ; 
La, A la, De la: Before a noun feminine singular begin- 
ning with a consonant ; 
Les, Aux, Des: Before any noun in the plural, 

POSITION. 

§ 212. The rules concerning the position of the Articles 
are the same in French as in English, with two exceptions, 
which follow : 

§ 213. Except. I. When the Indefinite Article occurs in 
connection with the word lei, such, the Article takes prece- 
dence. Thus, instead of saying, as in English, such a man, 



§§ 213—220. article. 55 

the French say, un tel homme, literally a such man ; une telle 
femme, such a woman, literally a such woman, 

§ 214. Exc. II. In cases like the following in English, so 
good a man, the French would put the Article before the Ad- 
jective thus, un si Ion homme, literally a so good man. 

Additional Peculiarities. 

§ 215. With us the Indefinite Article is often employed 
before nouns of weight, measure, or any reckoning, in such 
expressions as the following, I have sold my wheat at six 
shillings a bushel ;* but the French always employ the Defi- 
nite Article, if either, in such cases ; e. g-fai vendu mon bli 
a six schelings le boisseau. Sometimes, in such cases, the 
French supply the place of the Definite Article by the Prepo- 
sition par ; e. g. on vous demandera dix schelings par tete^ 
they will ask you ten shillings a head. 

§ 216. We say, I wish you good day, or, a good day, I 
caught a fever, the French say, le bonjour, \3.fievre. 

§ 217. We often use the Indefinite Article after the word 
what in an exclamation ; e. g. in such expressions as, what a 
house! what a fool of 'a lawyer ! The French always omit 
it in such cases ; e. g. quelle maison ! quel sot oVavocat ! 

§ 218. We use the Indefinite Article in such expressions 
as, what a fine tree there is I The French always make use 
of very different phraseology in such cases; e. g. le bel ar- 
bre que celui-la ! 

§ 219. We use the Indefinite Article before hundred and 
thousand ; e. g. a hundred crowns, 1 have gained a thousand 
pounds. The French do not ; e. g.' cent ecus, fai gagnA 
mille livres. 

§ 220. We use the Indefinite Article after the verbs to be, 
to become, etc. before a noun denoting profession, rank, coun- 
try, or other distinctive characteristic ; e. g. he is a physician, 
she is a duchess, I am an American. The French never do, 

* It would be proper English, though not so common, to say tka 
buehel. 



56 §§ 220—224. article. 

except when ce is the nominative to the verb ; e. g. they say, 
il est medecin, elle est duchesse, je suis Americain, but e?est 
un medecin, etc.* 

§ 221. The French do not use either the Definite or Indef- 
inite Article before a noun in apposition, in cases like the fol- 
lowing : Le due d? Orleans, prince du sang ; Louis, fils du 
Comte. We should say : The duke of Orleans , a prince of 
the blood ; Louis, the Counts son. So, too, in cases like the 
following, the principle of which is much like that of those 
just mentioned : Tons les peuples du monde ont Videe d^un 
etre supreme; preuve evidente, etc., every nation on the globe 
has the idea of a Supreme Being ; an evident proof, etc. 
The substantive, preuve, in this example, may be regarded as 
in apposition with the whole of the previous clause. 

§ 222. Proper names of persons, with a few exceptions 
mentioned in the next section, do not commonly take the Defi- 
nite Article ; e. g. Alexandre, Ctsar, et Napoleon avaient 
oeaucoup de courage, Alexander, Csesar, and Napoleon pos- 
sessed great courage. 

§ 223. The Definite Article is always used with certain 
proper names, principally names of Italian and French wri- 
ters and painters ; e. g. le Tasse, Tasso, VArioste, Ariosto, 
le Titien, Titian, la Fontaine, Fontaine, la Bruyere, Bruyere, 
la Rochefoucault, Rochefoucault. 

§ 224. When a proper name of a person is employed to de- 
note, not the person, but the character, becoming in fact a kind 
of common noun, the Article is used ; e. g. le Jupiter d^Ho- 
mert, Homer's Jupiter, V Alexandre du nouveau monde, the 
Alexander of the new world. 



* In case, however, the noun which denotes profession, rank, 
country, etc., be followed by some other word or words limiting the 
generality of the statement, the French use the Article ; e. g. je suis 
un prince trhs mnlheureux, I am a very unfortunate prince, je suis 
un Francais d'une illustrc maison, I am a Frenchman of an illustrious 
family. 



§§ 225—229. article, 57 

§ 225. Proper names of countries, provinces, islands, and 
other districts larger than cities and towns, almost all take 
the Definite Article, although in English they do not ; e. g. 
VAmerique est plus fertile que VAngleterre, America is more 
fertile than England. There are some constant exceptions 
to this rule. These consist chiefly of such countries as de- 
rive their name from that of their chief city.* 

§ 226. The Definite Article is not employed before such 
proper names of European districts of country as are referred 
to in the preceding section, when the idea of going to, coming 
from, or remaining in is expressed, en or de being in such 
cases used without the Article ; e. g. quand irez-vous en Es~ 
pagne ? when shall you go to Spain ? il vient a^arriver de 
Su&de, he has just arrived from Sweden, il est en France, he 
is in France. Yet, before the name of any country out of 
Europe, and also before that of Europe itself, the Article is 
used in such cases with the Preposition a or de ; e. g. il est 
alii au Japon, a VAmerique, a V Europe } etc., he is gone to 
Japan, to America, to Europe, etc. 

§ 227. The Definite Article is often not employed before 
the name of any country which is very closely connected in 
sense with a preceding substantive by the preposition de; 
e. g. le roi d'Angleterre, the English king, les peuples d? Af 
rique, the African nations, les pays d? Italic, the Italian coun- 
tries, les inquisiteurs d?Espagne et de Portugal, the Spanish 
and Portuguese inquisitors. 

§ 228. Names of cities or towns and smaller land-divisions 
do not take the Definite Article ; e. g. Rome, la maitresse du 
monde, Rome, the mistress of the world. To this rule there 
are the following exceptions : la Haye, la Rochelle, le Havre, 
le Perche, la Fleche, and such other names of places as have 
been derived from common nouns. 

§ 229. Proper names of rivers, mountains, and winds take 

* See a list of these exceptions in App. G. 



58 §§ 229—234. article. 

the Definite Article, as in English, unless they be connected 
by the Preposition de with the word riviere, montagne, or 
vent, preceding, in which case the Article is often omitted. 
E. g. la Tamise, the Thames, les Alpes y the Alps, VAquilon, 
the north- wind ; but, la riviere de Seine, the river Seine, h 
vent d'est, the east wind. 

§ 230. When any proper names are used in a manner 
analogous to that specified respecting names of persons in 
§ 224, the Article is employed ; e. g. le Paris de VAngle- 
terre, the Paris of England, Vaneienne Rome et la Rome mo- 
derne, ancient and modern Rome. 

§ 231. Common Substantives require the Definite Article 
before them in French, as in English, when their sense is re- 
stricted by the context so as to be definite and particular ; 
e. g. la maison que fai achetee, the house which I have bought. 

§ 232. Substantives taken in a very general sense, denoting 
whole classes or sorts, or anything considered universally, 
take the Definite Article in French, though not in English ; 
e. g. les rois sont mortels, kings are mortal, le pain est clier, 
bread is dear, V amour rend la vie agriable, love renders life 
agreeable. 

§ 233. The Definite Article is to be repeated in French 
before each of several nouns (whether adjective or substan 
tive) occurring together under the same relation ; e. g. le bit 
le vin, et Vhuile sont les richesses de notre etat, corn, wine 
and oil are the riches of our state, f admire la patience, Vin 
dustrie, et Vtconomie, I admire patience, industry, and econ 
omy, les vieux et les nouveaux soldats y the old and new sol 
diers. (But see §§ 242,243.) 

§ 234. In case an adjective in the superlative degree pre- 
cedes a substantive, one Article suffices, but in case it follows 
the substantive, the Article must be employed before each ; 
e. g. les plus habiles gens font quelquefois les plus grandes 
f aides, or, les gens les plus habiles font quelquefois les fautes 
les plus grandes , the ablest men sometimes commit the gross- 
est blunders. 



§§ 235—240. aktiOle. t- 59 

§ 235. The Definite Article is omitted before substantives 
denoting the title of a book or of part of a book, or a place of 
residence ; e. g. Grammaire Generate, General Grammar (as 
the title of a book), preface, preface, livre premier, first book, 
chapitre premier, chapter first, il demeure rue St. Jacques, he 
lives in St. James' Street. 

§ 236. The Definite Article is omitted before substantives 
which are preceded by any inflection of the pronouns, mon, 
my, ton, thy, son, bis, noire, our, voire, your, leur, their, ce, 
this, aucun, any, certain, certain, chaque, each, nul, no, pin- 
sieurs, several, tel, such, tout (when used for chaque), every, 
or by a cardinal number used without any definite reference 
to a particular set of persons or things ; e. g. mon ami a con- 
tribue beaucoup a votre bonheur, my friend has contributed 
much to your happiness, nul homme le sait, no man knows it, 
tout homme est mortel, every man is mortal, il y a cent choses, 
there are a hundred things. 

§ 237. The Definite Article is sometimes omitted before a 
substantive preceded by the prepositions, avec, en, par, pour, 
sans ; e. g. avec prudence, with prudence, en verite, in truth, 
il est en vie, he is alive, par raillerie, in jest, pour recom- 
pense, in recompense, sans doute, without doubt, un homme 
sans peur et sans reproche, a man without fear and without 
reproach.* 

§ 238. The Definite Article is omitted when a substantive 
is intimately joined in sense with the verb avoir or fair x, as 
in the following expressions, avoir compassion, to have com- 
passion, faire pitie, to cause pity.f 

§ 239. The Definite Article is omitted before substantives 
preceded by the conjunction ni, in such expressions as the 
following, il n'a ni honneur ni justice, he has neither honor 
nor justice. 

§ 240. In English, when two comparatives, more or less, 
are used in the same sentence to denote comparison, the Defi- 
* See App. H. t See App. H. 



60 §§ 240—245. article. 

nite Article is employed twice ; e. g. the more difficult a thing 
is, the more honorable it is, and, the more I see her, the less I 
esteem her. In French, however, the Article is not employed 
at all in such cases ; e. g. plus une chose est difficile, plus elle 
est honorable, and, plus je la vois, moinsje Vestime. 

§ 241. The Definite Article is omitted when a substantive 
is used in the manner of an interjection ; e. g. courage, sol- 
dats ! courage, soldiers ! 

§ 242. Although when several adjectives occur together 
qualifying the same substantive it is necessary to repeat the 
Article before each adjective if the sense of the adjectives be 
opposite or strikingly dissimilar (§ 233), yet, if the sense of 
the adjectives be somewhat similar, the Article is sometimes 
employed only once ; e. g. le sage et pieux Fenelon, the wise 
and pious Fenelon. 

§ 243. Although, as has been stated (§ 233), the Article is 
commonly to be repeated in French before each of several 
substantives occurring together under the same relation, yet, 
sometimes, for the sake of greater emphasis, the Article is 
wholly omitted in such cases ; e. g. Us ont renverse religion, 
morale, gouvernement, sciences, beaux-arts, they have over- 
turned religion, morality, government, science, fine arts. 

§ 244. When the Article occurs before plus or moins ex- 
pressing the superlative form of an adjective, it is varied ac- 
cording to the gender of the substantive, if there be compari- 
son with something else ; otherwise the masculine form of the 
Article is used, even though the substantive be feminine. 
E. g. De toutes les planHes la lune est la plus brill ante pour 
nous, Of all the planets, the moon is the most brilliant to us. 
La lune ne nous iclaire pas autant que le soleil, mime quand 
elle est le plus brillante, The moon does not give us so much 
light as the sun, even when it shines brightest. 

§ 245. The use of the Definite Article with the preposi- 
tion de before common substantives deserves special remark. 
The remainder of the chapter will be devoted to this subject. 



§§ 246—250. ARTICLE. 61 

§ 246. I. The Definite Article is used with de, in gene- 
ral, when the idea of some or any in English is involved ; 
e. g. fai vu des Frangais, I saw some Frenchmen, voulez- 
vous des livres, do you wish any books, donnez-moi de Veau, 
give me some water. This is the case when the idea of 
some is involved, even though in English the word do not oc- 
cur; e. g.fai des pommes ici, I have apples here. 

§ 247. II. When an adjective intervenes between the pre- 
position and the substantive, the Article is not used (save in 
the case mentioned in the next section) ; e. g. voila de beaux 
tableaux! there are some beautiful pictures! il a de bonnes 
plumes, he has some good pens.* 

<§ 248. III. In case an adjective and a substantive form 
together a kind of compound substantive, the Article is em- 
ployed ; e. g. fai du petit lait, I have some whey, il a du 
bon sens, he has good sense, les sentimens des anciens pkiloso- 
plies, the sentiments of the ancient philosophers.f 

§ 249. IV. The Article is not used after substantives of 
number, measure, weight, or any species of quantity ; e. g. un 
grand nombre dlwmmes, a great number of men, une dou- 
zaine de boutons, a dozen of buttons, une bande de voleurs, a 
gang of robbers, une verre d^eau, a glass of water, une goutte 
de vin, a drop of wine, une livre de fromage, a pound of 
cheese. t 

§ 250. V. The Article is not used after esphce, genre, 
sorte, or any word expressing kind ; e. g. espece de poisson, 



* But if the adjective follow the substantive the Article is used ; 
e. g. voila de la viande excellente, there is good meat, donnez-moi du 
vin rouge, give me some red wine. 

t Les sentimens d'anciens philosophes would mean, the sentiments 
of (some) ancient philosophers. 

% To this principle, perhaps, we may properly refer such expres- 
sions as, dix hommes de blesses et deux hommes de tu6s f ten men 
wounded and two men killed. 

6 



62 §§ 250—255. article. 

species of fish, genre d^ouvrage, kind of work, sorte de fruit, 
sort of fruit. 

§ 251. VI. The Article is not used after per sonne, quelque 
chose, quelqu'un, quoi, in such expressions as, il ri*y a per- 
sonne de meconlent, there is not a single discontented per- 
son, quelque chose oVetonnant, something astonishing, y a-t-il 
quelqu'un de mecontent 1 is there any one discontented ? quoi 
de plus juste 7 what more just ? 

§ 252. VII. The Article is not used after adverbs of 
quantity, such as, assez, enough, autant, as much, beaucoup, 
much or many, combien, how much or how many, gukre, 
scarce any, jamais, never, moins, less, pas, no, peu, little, 
plus, more, point, no, rien, nothing, tant, so much, trop, too 
much ; e. g. il y a assez oV amour, there is sufficient love, iu 
ri*as pas de gants, thou hast no gloves, il rCa plus de plaisir, 
he has no more pleasure, fai peu d^hommes ici, I have but 
few men here, vous avez trop oVappetit, you have too much 
appetite.* 

§ 253. VIII. The Article is not used when de expresses 
the relation of material, quality, or nature; e. g. pont de 
pierre, bridge of stone, or stone bridge, habit oVecarlate, dress 
of scarlet, or scarlet dress. 

§ 254. IX. The English possessive case of common sub- 
stantives is rendered in French by means of de with the Defi- 
nite Article ; e. g. the king's son, le fits du roi, the bird's 
wings, les ailes de Voiseau. 

§ 255. X. The Article is not used before the adjective 
feu, deceased, in such expressions as, de feu Pierre, of the 
deceased Peter, a feu voire frere, to your deceased brother. 

* Bien is the only adverb of quantity which is followed by the 
Article ; e. g. il a Men de Vesprit, he has much spirit, but il a beau- 
toup d'csprit. In the idiomatic expressions, pas du tout, plus du 
Lout, -point du tout, rien du tout, the adverbs are not used as adverbs 
of quantity. 



§§ 256—259. substantive. 63 



CHAP. II. 

SUBSTANTIVE. 

VARIATION. 

General Statement. 

§ 256. Substantives in French are of the Masculine, Fem- 
inine, or Common Gender. There is no Neuter Gender, in 
French. All substantives are either masculine or feminine, 
or else both masculine and feminine at the same time. Sub- 
stantives have two Numbers in French, Singular and Plural. 
They have no variation of Case in the proper sense of that 
word. The functions performed by cases in other languages 
are performed in French chiefly by prepositions or by the 
relative position of the Substantive. 

GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

§ 257. In French, as in most languages, Substantives have 
generally one invariable gender. Some, however, are of dif- 
ferent genders according to their different significations.* 

§ 258. When a Substantive, in whose meaning the idea of 
sex is involved, ends with unaccented e, it is of the common 
gender, i. e. may be used either as masculine or feminine ; 
e. g. un or une adulter e, an adulterer or adulteress, earner ade, 
companion, convive, guest, esclave, slave, pot te, poet, pupille, 
pupil. 

§ 259. There is no general custom in French, like that 
which exists in some languages, of changing the gender of 
the Substantive by slight alterations in its form ; for instance, 
by affixing a peculiar termination to the masculine to form 
the feminine. Yet changes of termination for this purpose 
do sometimes occur. They are limited to Substantives which 

* For a list of these Substantives see App. I. 



64 §§ 259 — 267. substantive. 

denote sex. The following are the chief, if not all, the in- 
stances of this sort. 

§ 260. I. From names of males which do not already end 
in unaccented e (§ 258,) the feminine is generally formed by 
adding an unaccented e: e. g. ami, friend, fern, amie ; aieui, 
grandfather, aieide, grandmother ; babillard, prattler, fern, ba- 
billarde; berger, shepherd, bergere, shepherdess ; cousin, cou- 
sin, fern, cousine ; marie, bridegroom, mariee, bride; prieur, 
prior, prieure, prioress. 

§ 261. II. The feminine is often formed from masculines 
ending in eur by changing this termination into euse : e. g. 
achefeur, fern, acheteuse, buyer ; menteur, fern, menieuse, liar ; 
trompeur, fern, trompeuse, deceiver. 

§ 262. III. The feminine of masculines ending in eur is 
often formed by changing this termination into rice : e. g. ac- 
teur, actor, actrice, actress ; ambassadeur, ambassador, am- 
bassadrice, ambassadress ; bienfaiteur,her\efaQ,ior,bienfaitrice, 
benefactress ; electeur, elector, eleclrice, electress ; fondateur, 
fern, fondatrice, founder ; protecteur, protector, protectrice, 
protectress. 

§ 263. IV. The feminine of some masculines ending in c 
is formed by changing c into que : e. g. caduc, fern, caduque, 
perishable ; Turc, fern. Turque, Turk. 

§ 264. V. The feminine of some masculines ending in/ 
is formed by changing/ to ve ; e. g. Juif, Jew, Juive, Jewess. 

§ 265. VI. The feminine of masculines ending in n with 
o or ie before it is formed by adding ne : e. g. baron, baron, 
baronne, baroness ; Chretien, fern. Cltrttienne, Christian. 

§ 266. VII. The feminine of some masculines is formed 
by changing final x into se : e. g. e'poiuv, fern, epoiise, spouse ; 
jaloux, fern, jalouse, a jealous person. 

§ 267. VIII. The feminine of some masculines is formed 
by adding sse when the word ends with e and esse otherwise : 
e. g. abbe, abbot, abbesse, abbess ; chanoine, canon, chanoi- 
nesse, canoness ; comtc, count, comtessc, countess ; iv?~ognei 



§§ 267 — 271. substantive. 65 

fern, ivrognesse, drunkard ; larron, fern, larronesse, thief ; 
Maure, fern. Mauresse, Moor ; prince, prince, princesse, prin- 
cess ; traitre, traitor, traitresse, traitress. 

§ 268. IX. The following are irregular formations of the 
feminine from the masculine : chasseur, hunter, chasseresse, 
huntress ;* compagnon, fern, compagne, companion ; devin, 
fern, devinei^esse, conjuror ; Dieu, God, deesse, goddess; due, 
duke, duchesse, duchess ; enchanteur, sorcerer, enchanter esse, 
sorceress ; pecheur, fern, pecheresse, sinner ; roi, king, reine, 
queen. 

§ 269. As to the gender of all those French Substantives 
which do not involve any idea of sex, no invariable rules can 
be given. The numerous attempts to lay down such rules 
have all proved abortive. Most of the common statements 
on this subject are worse than useless ; for they are so indefi- 
nite and so often inaccui'ate, that no reliance can be put upon 
them. The learner finds it as necessary to have recourse to 
some other assurance of the actual gender of a Substantive 
as though these rules had never been devised. The Dic- 
tionary or some other equivalent catalogue is the best and 
only sure means of determining the gender of most French 
Substantives. 

§ 270. The Substantives which are masculine or feminine 
in English are for the most part, if not always, of the same 
gender in French. The difficulty in the gender of French 
Substantives relates almost wholly to those which in English 
are of the neuter gender, but which in French are, for the 
most part arbitrarily, assigned either to the masculine or the 
feminine gender. 

DUMBER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
§ 271. I. The general rule for the formation of the plural 

* The regular feminine of chasshir is chassmse, according to the 
rule in § 261. The form chasseresse is used only in poetry or poeti- 
cal prose. 

6* 



66 §§ 271 — 274. substantive. 

of Substantives in French is the same as in English, viz. to 
add the letter s to the singular : e. g. le pere, father, pi. les 
phres ; la mere, mother, pi. les meres. 

§ 272. II. By the usage of most writers, Substantives of 
more than one syllable which end in nt, drop the t in the plu- 
ral, taking the plural ending s, according to the general rule : 
e. g. V enfant i child, pi. les enfans. But, if the Substantive 
have but one syllable, the t is not dropped : e. g. le chant, 
song, pi. les chants; la dent, tooth, pi. les dents; le gant, 
glove, pi. les gants* Many writers do not drop the t in the 
plural of any Substantive, writing enfants, commandements, etc. 

§ 273. III. Substantives which end in au,i eu,\ or ou take 
an x instead of an s to form their plural : e. g. le manteau, 
mantle, pi. les manieaux ; le feu, fire, pi. les feux ; le bijou, 
jewel, pi. les bijoux ; le lieu, place, pi. les lieux; le voeu, vow, 
pi. lesvceux; To this rule, however, the following words 
are exceptions : le bleu, blue color, le clou, nail, le cou, neck, 
lefilou, pickpocket, lefou, fool, le licou, halter, le loup-garou, 
were-wolf, le matou, male cat, le sou, cent, le trou, hole, le 
verrou, bolt, all of which follow the general rule and take s, 
not #.§ 

§ 274. IV. Substantives which end in ail or al commonly 
form their plural by changing these terminations to aux : e. g. 
le cheval, the horse, pi. les chevaux ; le travail, labor, pi. Ira- 
vaux. To this rule there are the following exceptions: (1) 
of words ending in ail, un att trail, train, le camail, capuchin 
(a garment), le dUail, detail, un e'ventail, fan, un epouvantail, 

* To this statement the word gent, people, forms an exception, its 
plural being gens. So also, with some writers the plural of cent, 
hundred, is cens. 

t Nearly all these end in cau. 

X This termination includes those ending in ant. 

§ The Dictionary of the Frcndi Academy and Levizac's Grammar 
etate the plural of le hibou, owl, to be hiboux ; other authorities write 
hibous. 



§§ 274 — 279. substantive. 67 

scare-crow, le gouvernail, helm, le mail, mall, le portail, por- 
tal, le serail, seraglio ; and (2) of words ending in al, le bal, 
ball, le local, jug, le cal, callus, le carnaval, carnival, le pal, 
pale (in heraldry), le regal, treat, as also all proper names 
ending in at which are used in a plural form. In all these 
excepted cases the plural is formed in the regular way by 
adding s ; e. g. les attirails, the trains, les details, the details, 
les Annibals de notre temps, the Hannibals of our time. 

§ 275. V. Substantives whose singular ends in s, x, or z 
do not change their form at all in the plural : e. g. la croix, 
the cross, pi. les croix ; le lis, the lily, pi. les lis ; le nez, the 
nose, pi. les nez.* 

§ 276. VI. The following words are quite irregular as 
respects their plural : aieul, grandfather, pi. aieux; ail, (masc), 
garlic, pi. aulx ; le betail, cattle, pi. bestiaux; le del, heaven, 
pi. les cieux ; un ceil, eye, pi. yeux.i 

§ 277. Compound Substantives are subject to the following 
rules respecting the formation of their plural : 

§ 278. I. When they are compounded of two Substan- 
tives united by a preposition, only the first Substantive takes 
a plural termination : e. g. un arc-en-ciel, rainbow, pi. arcs- 
en- del ; le chef-d'oeuvre, masterpiece, pi. chefs-d'oeuvre ; le 
cheval-de-Frise, pointed instrument of war, pi. chevaux-de- 
Frise ; le ciel-de-lit, bed-tester, pi. ciels-de-Ut ; le jei-d'eau, 
water-spout, pi. jets-d'eau ; un ceil-de-boeuf, oval window, pi. 
rdls-de-bavif\ 

§ 279. II. When they are compounded of an adjective 

* The words le zZro and le passe-partout are the same, also, in the 
plural as in the singular; e. g. trois zdro, three cyphers, dcs passe- 
partout } master-keys. 

t del forms its plural regularly when it means bedtester or sky in 
painting; and so does ail in the word ceil-de-bavf, oval window. 

t The word pot-au-fcu, meat for the pot, forms an exception to 
this rule. It is not changed at all in the plural ; e. g. trois pot-au- 
feu 7 three messes. 



68 §§ 279—283. substantive. 

and a Substantive or a possessive pronoun and a Substantive, 
both of the component parts take a plural termination : e. g. 
un arc-boutant, buttress, pi. arcs-boutans ; un gentil-homme, 
gentleman, pi. gentils-hornmes ; une sage-femme, midwife, pi. 
sages-femmes ; Monsieur, Sir, pi. Messieurs ; Madame, Ma- 
dam, pi. Mesdames ; Monseigneur, my Lord , pi. Messeigneurs* 

§ 280. III. When they are compounded of a verb or prep- 
osition and a Substantive, the Substantive only is changed for 
the plural : e. g. un abat-jour, skylight, pi. abat-jours ; une 
arriere- garde, rear-guard, pi. arriere- gardes ; un avant-cou- 
reur, forerunner, pi. avant-coureurs ; un contre-coup, rebound, 
pi. contr e- coups ; un cure-dent, toothpick, pi. cur e- dents ; un 
garde-feu, fender, pi. garde-feux ; un garde-fou, rail, pi. 
garde-fous ; un passe-port, passports, pi. passe-poris. 

§ 281. Some Substantives in French, as in English, are 
never used in the plural number ; e. g. la chasteU, chastity, 
or (masc), gold, le sang, blood, la pauvrete, poverty, le passe- 
passe, juggling. 

§ 282. Some Substantives in French, as in English, are 
never used in the singular number ; e. g. les annates, annals, 
les entrailles, entrails, les funerailles, obsequies, les hardcs, 
clothes, les mouchettes, snuffers, les noces y nuptials, les pin- 
cettes, tongs. 

DETERMINATION OF FORM. 

GENDER AND NUMBER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

§ 283. The rules respecting the use of the genders and 
numbers of Substantives are the same in French as in Eng- 
lish. Since there are no cases, properly so called, in French, 
this is all which it is important to say here as to the choice of 
forms in employing Substantives. 

* It will be seen that the last three v/ords above are compounded 
of the possessive pronoun mon, mo, pi. mrs, and a Substantive. 



§§ 284—287. substantive. 69 

position. 

§ 284. As in English, the Substantive subject usually pre- 
cedes the verb and the Substantive object follows it ; e. g. le 
roi aime sa sozwr, the king loves his sister, Pierre a regit le 
chien, Peter has received the dog.* The exceptions to this 
rule are more frequent in French than in English. They 
will now be noticed. 

§ 285. (a) The French sometimes put the subject after 
the verb when comme or que occurs, or oil with a reflexive 
verb, in such expressions as the following : les pommes sont 
gates, comme me dit Richard, the apples are spoiled, Richard 
tells me, le cJiien que m'a vendu le garde-chasse, the dog 
which the game-keeper has sold me, Vendroii oil se cachent 
les hups, the place where the wolves hide. 

§ 286. (b) When the words of another are repeated, the 
subject comes after the verb dire, or other verb, used to de- 
note the citation ; e. g. je le veux lien, dit Louis, I am very 
willing, said Louis, ah ! dit la femme, je suis miserable, ah ! 
said the woman, I am miserable. 

§ 287. (c) When a question is asked with but one sub- 
ject^ the subject is put after the verb which denotes the 
point of the question ; e. g. que dit voire ami 1 what does your 
friend say ? a quoi s'occupe voire frhre ? about what is your 
brother occupied ? 

* The rules respecting the position of pronoun subjects and ob- 
jects may be seen under their proper head in this Grammar. They 
are not the same as those here given concerning Substantives. 

t The most usual mode of asking a question in French is by mak- 
ing use of the expression est-ce que, or qu' est-ce que c'cst ; e.g. est-ce que 
vous arez dini? have you dined? qu 'est-ce que ccsi que Pierre dit? 
what is it that Peter says? Here the verb which asks the question 
is est. Another very common mode is to name the Substantive sub- 
ject first and then put a pronoun subject after the verb ; e. g. le roi 
est-il maladc? is the king sick? cctte nouvelle est-elle sure? is this 
news certain ? The use of only one substantive subject in an inter- 
rogation, as in the rule above, is not very common, 



HO §§288—292. substantive. 

§288. (d) With the subjunctive mode expressing a wish, 
the subject as in English, occurs after the verb ; e. g. puiss- 
ent tons les peuples se convaincre de cette verite, may all na- 
tions be convinced of this truth. 

§ 289.' (e) After the words tel, ainsi, etc., the subject fol- 
lows the verb, as in like cases in English ; e. g. tel ttait Vob- 
scurite, que etc. such was the obscurity, that etc., ainsi Jinit 
sa vie, thus ended his life. 

§ 290. In an interrogative sentence, the object, if the pro- 
noun quel agree with it, must precede the verb ; e. g. quel 
objet voyez-vous ? what object do you see ? a quelle science 
vous appliquez-vousl to what science are you applying your- 
self? 

§ 291. Where a verb governs one direct object and is 
connected with another object by a preposition, the position 
of the direct with reference to the indirect object is regulated 
by euphony. Commonly, the shortest of the two, taking into 
account the necessary accompaniments, is placed first ; and, 
if they be of equal length, the direct object takes precedence. 
E. g. les hypocrites s^etudient a parer le vice des dehors de la 
vertu, hypocrites study to deck vice with the exterior of vir- 
tue ; les hypocrites s'etudient a parer des dehors de la vertu 
les vices les plus honteux et les plus de' cries, hypocrites study 
to deck with the exterior of virtue the most shameful and 
most odious vices ; V ambition sacrifie le present a Vavenir, 
mais la volupte sacrifie Vavenir au present, ambition sacrifices 
the present to the future, but pleasure sacrifices the future to 
the present. 

§ 292. Whatever it is important to know further concern- 
ing the relative position of the Substantive, may be learned 
from what is said in this Grammar of the position of other 
parts of speech, and from the principle, that in all cases not 
otherwise regulated in this Grammar the rules on this subject 
are the same in French as in English. 



§§ 293—298. substantive. 71 

Additional Peculiarities, 

§ 293. The French have no such compounds as dining- 
room, gold-watch, milk-pot, water-rat, etc. in English. They 
employ the two component parts of such English words sepa- 
rately, connecting them by a preposition. 

§ 294. In case the first part of such English compounds 
as have been mentioned denotes an action performed by the 
use of what is denoted by the last part, the preposition a is 
employed to connect them ; e. g. salle a manger, dining- 
room, papier a ecrire, writing-paper. 

§ 295. The preposition a is employed, too, in such cases, 
whenever the first part of the English compound expresses 
destination or purpose ; e. g. moulin a cafi, coffee-mill, pot- 
au-lait, milk-pot, nid a rat, rat's nest, poudre a canon, gun- 
powder.* 

§ 296. The preposition a is employed, too, in such cases, 
whenever the first part of the English compound expresses 
means of operation ; e. g. moulin a bras, hand-mill, moulin h 
eau, water-mill, fusil a vent, air-gun, pompe a air, air pump. 

§ 297. The preposition a is employed, too, in such cases, 
whenever the first part of the English compound expresses a 
distinctive characteristic of a person or thing, especially food; 
e. g. lafemme aux huitres, the oyster-woman, lefromage a la 
ereme, cream-cheese, la soupe au lait, milk-soup. 

§ 298. In all other cases of such English compounds, ex- 
cept those which have been specified, the preposition de is 
used to connect the two words ; e. g. montre oVor, gold- 
watch, rat-d^eau, water-rat. 

* It is true, the French say, le magasin de bois, le magasin de pow 
dre, etc.; but it will be found, on examination, that properly the 
substantive in these cases only conveys the idea of great quantity. 
Thus the expressions just cited mean only the store of wood, the store 
of poicder. When magasin is employed to denote more particularly 
the place where anything is destined to be stored, it requires the 
preposition a; e. g. le magasin a poudre, the powder-magazine. 



72 §§ 299—302. adjective. 

§ 299. There are cases in which a Substantive has a quite 
different meaning in the singular number from that which 
belongs to it in the plural : e. g. le ciseau, chisel, Us ciseaux, 
scissors ; le fer, iron, Us fers, chains ; U gage, pledge, Us 
gages, wages ; la lunette, glass, Us lunettes, spectacles ; le 
papier, paper, Us papier s, writings ; la viande, meat, Us vi- 
andes, victuals. 



CHAP. III. 

ADJECTIVE. 

VARIATION. 

General Statement. 



§ 300. The only variations of form to which Adjectives 
are subject in French are those of Gender and Number. 
(For the manner in which degrees of comparison are ex- 
pressed in French, see Additional Peculiarities of Adjectives, 
§ 351.) 

GENDER. 

§ 301. In English, Adjectives are not subject to any dis- 
tinction of gender. In French every Adjective form is either 
masculine, feminine, or common. 

§ 302. The rules respecting the gender of Adjectives are 
nearly the same as those which have been given respecting 
the Gender of substantives. The chief difference lies in the 
extent to which the rules apply in each of the two cases. 
There are comparatively but few substantives (only those de- 
noting sex,) which undergo any variation of form on the score 
of gender ; but all Adjectives are subject to the following 
rules. 



§§ 303—310. ADJECTIVE. 73 

§ 303. I. Adjectives ending with unaccented e, commonly 
called e mute, are of the common Gender, i. e. undergo no 
change to denote distinction of Gender ; e. g. aimable (masc. 
and fern.), amiable, agreable (masc. and fern.), agreeable.* 

§ 304. II. In general other Adjectives merely add an un- 
accented e to the masculine to form the feminine : e. g. sa- 
vant, learned, fern, savante; grand, great, fern, grande.f 

§ 305. III. Of the eight Adjectives ending in c, three 
change c into die to form the feminine : Mane, white, fern. 
blanche ; franc, free, fern, franche ; sec, dry, fern, seche. 
The rest change c into que for the feminine : ammoniac, am- 
moniac, fern, ammoniaque ; caduc, perishable, fern, caduque ; 
Grec, Greek, fern. Grecqae ; -public, public, fern, publique ; 
Turc, Turk, fern. Tar que. 

§306. IV. The two following Adjectives, sometimes writ- 
ten with final d, deviate in that case from Rule II. in the forma- 
tion of their feminine : crud (commonly cru), raw, fern, crue ; 
verd (commonly vert), green, fern, verte. Other Adjectives 
ending with d follow Rule II. 

§307. V. All adjectives ending with f change f into ve 
to form the feminine : e. g. brief, brief, fern, brieve; positif 
positive, fern, positive ; vif, lively, fern. vive. 

§ 308. VI. One adjective ending in g takes the letters ue 
in addition to form the feminine : long, fern, longue. 

§ 309. VII. The two following adjectives ending in i, take 
te in addition to form their feminine : coi, snug, fern, coite ; 
favori, favorite, fern, favorite. Other adjectives ending with 
i follow Rule II. 

§ 310. VIII. All adjectives ending with I preceded imme- 

* To this statement there is one exception : traitre, traitorous, 
fern, traitresse. 

t This rule is invariable in its application to adjectives ending 
with any other voiocl than e unaccented, with exception of the few 
words mentioned in §§ 309 and 315. The exceptions as to words 
ending with consonants are stated in the succeeding sections above. 

7 



74 §§ 310—314. ADJECTIVE. 

diately by e, o, u, or ei, double the Z and add unaccented e to 
form the feminine : e. g. cruel, cruel, fern, cruelle ; fol, fool- 
ish, fern, folle ; nul, no, fern, nulle ; pareil, equal, fern. _pa- 
r exile. All other adjectives ending with I follow Rule II, ex- 
cept gentil, genteel, which forms its feminine like those just 
mentioned, gentille. 

§ 311. IX. All adjectives ending with n preceded imme- 
diately by ie or o, double the n and add unaccented e to form 
the feminine : e. g. chretien, christian, fern, chrttienne ; bon, 
good, fern, bonne. All other adjectives ending with n follow 
Rule II, except benin, benign, and malin, malign, whose fem- 
inines are benigne and maligne. 

§ 312. X. Adjectives ending with r preceded immediate- 
ly by eu generally change eur into euse : e. g. jlatteur, flat- 
tering, fem.fiatteuse ; menteur, lying, fern, menteuse* Many 
substantives ending in leur are sometimes used as adjectives. 
These (as stated in §§ 262, 268), not unfrequently form their 
feminine by changing leur into trice or teresse, instead of tease. 

§ 313. XI. Of Adjectives ending with s the following are 
irregular in the formation of their feminine : (1) Some which 
double the final consonant, besides adding e, viz. bas, low, 
fern, basse ; cas, broken, fern, casse ; epais, thick, fern, epaisse ; 
expres, express, fern, expresse ; gras, fat, fern, grasse; gros. 
great, fern, grosse ; las, tired, fern, lasse ; metis, mongrel, 
fern, mttisse ; profis, professed, fern, professe ; and (2) some 
which are otherwise irregular, viz. absous, absolved, fern, ab- 
soute ; dissous, dissolved, fern, dissoute ; frais, fresh, fern. 
fraiche ; tiers, third, fern, tierce ; tors, twisted, fern, torte (or, 
regularly, torse). 

§ 314. XII. Adjectives which end with t preceded by c 

* The following adjectives ending with cur form their feminities 
regularly by merely adding c.- antcricur, anterior, mitt rirur. hither, 
tzttrieur, exterior, InjVrlcur, inferior, intrricur, interior, majuir, ma- 
jor, meUlcur, better, mincur, minor, postcricur, posterior, supcrieur, 
•uperior, ultericur, ulterior. 



§§ 314—319. ADJECTIVE. 75 

or o, double the t and add unaccented e : e. g. doucet, affect- 
ed, fern, doucette; net, neat, fern, netie; violet, violet, fern. 
violette ; sot, foolish, fern, sotte ; vieillot, stale, fern, vieil- 
lotte* 

§ 315. XI1T. Of Adjectives ending with u the following 
are irregular: beau (or bel), beautiful, fern, belle ; fou (or 
fol), foolish, fem.folle ; jumeau, twin, fem.jumelle; mou (or 
moZ), soft, fern, molle ; nouueau, (or nouvel), new, fern. ?iom- 
^eZZe.f 

§ 316. XIV. Adjectives which end with x change x into 
se for the feminine : e. g. creux, hollow, fern, creuse ; jaloux, 
jealous, fern, jalouse. 

§ 317. XV. Some Adjectives have no feminine : e. g. 
dispos, active ; fat, impertinent ; paillet, pale. Some have 
no masculine : e. g. blette, half-rotten. 

NUMBER. 

§ 318. In English Adjectives are not subject to the dis- 
tinction of Number. In French, on the contrary, every Ad- 
jective form is either Singular or Plural. 

§ 319. The rules respecting the Number of Adjectives are 
in general the same as those before given as to substantives 
(§271 seq.) The extent of their application is also in both 
cases nearly the same. 

* To this rule there is a considerable number of exceptions : con- 
cret, concrete, fern, concrete; cornplet, complete, fern, complete; de- 
cot, devout, fern, devote ; discret, discreet, fern, discrete; incomplet, 
incomplete, fern, incomplete; indiscret, indiscreet, fern, indiscrete ; 
inquiet, unquiet, fern, inquiete ; pret, ready, fern, prete; replet, re- 
plete, fern, replete ; secret, secret, fern, secrete; suret, sourish, fern. 
surHe. 

t It will be noticed that in all these instances, save one, two forms 
of the masculine are given, and that the feminine form is derived 
from the masculine in brackets according to Rule VIII. § 310. For 
further explanation of the use of the two masculines respectively 
see § 334, 



76 §§ 320—326. adjective. 

§ 320. I. The general rule for the formation of the plural 
is, to add the letter s to the singular ; e. g. masc. sing, bon, 
good, masc. pi. bons ; fern. sing, bonne, good, fern. pi. bonnes ; 
sing, grand, grande, great, pi. grands, grandes* 

§ 321. II. Adjectives of more than one syllable which 
terminate with nt in the singular! drop the t in the plural, 
according to the usage of many writers : e. g. charmant, 
charming, pi. charmans ; plaisant, pleasant, pi. plaisans.% 

§ 322. III. Adjectives which end with au in the singular 
add # to form the plural : e. g. beau, beautiful, pi. beaux ; nou- 
veau, new, pi. nouveaux.§ 

§ 323. IV. Adjectives which end with al in the singular 
change al into aux to form the plural ; e. g. egal, equal, pi. 
egaux ; royal, royal, pi. royaux.\\ 

§ 324. V. Adjectives which end with s or x in the singu- 
lar remain unchanged in the plural ; e. g. gras, fat, pi. gras; 
heureux, happy, pi. heureux. 

§ 325. There is one Adjective whose plural deviates from 
alt the rules which have been given. This is tout, all, pi. 
tons. 

§ 326. Some Adjectives have no plural ; e. g. feu, de- 
ceased. Nearly all the Adjectives ending with al have no 
masculine plural. (Comp. note || below.) Vingt, twenty, 

* The masculine and feminine of Adjectives have each a separate 
plural in all cases where the masculine and feminine differ in the 
singular (comp. § 303. Rule I. concerning the gender of Adjectives). 
The Rule 1. given above has no exception as respects the formation 
of the plural of feminine Adjectives. All the subsequent rules relate 
to the formation of masculine plurals. 

t This excludes/emmi/ie Adjectives. 

X Some persons, however, as was said respecting substantives (§ 
27*2), do not omit the t, writing charmants, plaisant* , etc. Mono- 
syllables never drop the t ; e. g. lent, slow, pi. lents. 

§ Bleu, blue, makes bleus in the plural ; and mou, soft, mous. 

|| All those Adjectives ending in al which have a plural form it 



§§ 326—330. adjective. 77 

when uncompounded, does not take an 5 with a substantive ; 
but in quatre-vingts, eighty, it does : e. g. vingt volumes, 
twenty volumes ; quatre-vingts hommes, eighty men. 

DETERMINATION OF FORM. 

§ 327. I. An Adjective, in French, agrees in gender and 
number with the substantive to which it relates ; e. g. un 
homme heureux, a happy man, une femme heureuse, a happy 
woman, des hommes heureux, happy men, des femmes heu- 
reuses, happy women.* 

§ 328. II. When an Adjective relates to two or more 
substantives, from which it is separated by an intervening 
verb, and the substantives are of the same gender, the Adjec- 
tive is put in the plural, and agrees with the substantives in 
gender ; e. g. ma mere et ma tante ne sont pas saines, my 
mother and aunt are not well, mon pere et ?no?i oncle sont 
actifs, my father and my uncle are active. 

§ 329. III. When an Adjective relates to two or more 
substantives, from which it is separated by an intervening 
verb, and the substantives are of different genders, the Adjec- 
tive is put in the plural masculine ; e. g. le vent et la pluie 
etaient violens, the wind and the rain were violent. 

§ 330. IV. When an Adjective relates to two or more 
substantives of different genders and no verb intervenes be- 
tween the Adjective and substantives, the Adjective agrees in 
gender and number with the last substantive; e. g. il joue 
acec un gout et une noblesse charmante, he plays with charm- 
ing taste and nobleness (but, il joue avec une noblesse et un 



as stated in § 323; but most Adjectives with this termination have 
no plural masculine. The plural feminine is regularly formed*, as 
stated in note * on the preceding page. 

* An Adjective is put in the singular with vous, a plural pronoun 
used instead of a singular one (see § 473) ; e. g. vous ttes prudent tt 
sage, you are prudent and wise. 

7* 



78 §§ 330—336. adjective. 

gout charmani), elle avait les yeux el la louche ouverte, she 
had her eyes and mouth open. 

§ 331. V. When a singular substantive of multitude is 
followed by the preposition de with a plural substantive, an 
Adjective relating thereto, which is separated from the sub- 
stantive of multitude by a verb, must, as well as the verb it- 
self, be in the plural number; e. g. la plupart des dames fur* 
ent malheureuses, most of the ladies were unhappy. 

§ 332. VI. An Adjective used as a substantive (which 
Adjective is in some languages, e. g. the Latin, of the neuter 
gender) is in French always of the masculine gender ; e. g. 
le beau n'est pas toujours bon, the beautiful is not always 
good, le sublime eleve V esprit, the sublime elevates the mind, 
faime mieux le vert que le bleu, I prefer the green to the blue. 

§ 333. VII. Mi, hemi, and semi, meaning half, never 
change. They are commonly joined to a substantive by a 
hyphen ; e. g. mi-chemin, half-way, mi-Mai, middle of May, 
semi-Pelagien, semi-Pelagian. Demi is never changed be- 
fore a substantive, but it is changed when alone ; e. g. une 
demi-heure, a half hour, une heure et demie, an hour and a 
half, une livre et demie, a pound and a half. 

§ 334. VIII. The forms, bel, beautiful, fol, foolish, mol, 
soft, nouvel, new, are used before any masculine substantive 
in the singular beginning with a vowel or h mute, but other- 
wise the forms, beau,fou, mou, nouveau, are employed ; e. g. 
bel air, fine air, beaujardin, beautiful garden, fol amour, fool- 
ish love, chienfou, mad dog. 

§ 335. IX. The Adjective nu, naked, never undergoes 
any change when it precedes a substantive. It is then always 
united with the substantive by a hyphen ; e. g. nu-titc, bare- 
headed, nu-pieds, bare-footed. It is varied regularly when it 
follows the substantive to which it relates ; e. g. 7a tete nue. 
the head bare, les pieds nus, the feet bare. 

§ 336. X. The Adjective feu, late, deceased, is not chang- 
ed at all when it occurs before an article or adjective-pro- 



§§ 336—345. adjective. 79 

noun ; e. g-feu la reine, the late queen, feu ma mire, my late 
mother. But, if it be placed after the article or pronoun, it 
must be varied as respects gender ; e. g. la feue reine, ma 
feue mere. 

POSITION. 

§ 337. In French the Adjective com m only follows the sub- 
stantive, instead of preceding it as in English. Perhaps no 
certain rules covering the whole ground of this subject can 
be given. The following, it is thought, will at least be of some 
use : 

§ 338. I. Adjectives denoting colors follow the sub- 
stantive ; e. ,g. une maison rouge, a red house, une robe 
blanche, a white dress. 

§ 339. II. So do Adjectives denoting shape ; e. g. une ta- 
ble ronde, a round table, une f entire ovale, an oval window. 

§ 340. III. So do Adjectives denoting nationality ; e. g. 
la langue Franpaise, the French language, du drap Anglais, 
English cloth. 

§ 341. IV. So do Adjectives denoting qualities of the 
weather or the elements ; e. g. temps froid, cold weather, air 
pur, pure air, eau tilde, lukewarm water. 

§ 342. V. So do past participles or substantives used as 
Adjectives ; e. g. un homme respecte, a respected man, une 
femme hypocrite, a hypocritical woman, une conduite bete, 
foolish conduct. 

§ 343. VI. So do Adjectives ending in able; e. g. un etat 
miserable, a miserable condition, une personne capable, a ca- 
pable person. 

§ 344. VII. So do Adjectives ending in esque,f, ic, il, 
ique, and ule ; e. g. une piece burlesque, a burlesque piece, 
un homme oisif a lazy man, tresor public, public treasure, un 
discours pueril } a puerile discourse, un temple magnifique, a 
magnificent temple, une femme credule, a credulous woman. 

§ 345. VIII. Numeral Adjectives (see Appendix J.) are 



80 §§ 345—349. adjective. 

placed before the substantive to which they relate ; e. g. 
une porte, a door, le premier rang, the first rank.* 

§ 346. IX. So are all Adjective pronouns ; e. g. mafemme, 
my wife, chaque homme, every man, ces pommes, these ap- 
ples.t 

§ 347. X. So are the following Adjectives : beau, beauti- 
ful, bon, good, brave, brave, cher, dear, chetif, mean, feu, de- 
ceased, grand, great, gros, large, jeune, young, joli, pretty, 
mauvais, bad, mediant, wicked, meilleur, better or best, moin~ 
dre, less or least, petit, little, saint, holy, sot, foolish, tout, all, 
vieux, old, vilain, ugly, vrai, true ; all of which are in quite 
common use. J 

§ 348. XL When two or more Adjectives, connected by 
a conjunction, are used with the same substantive, they may 
sometimes be put before the substantive (but this rarely, and 
only when there are but tioo Adjectives), but it can never be 
wrong to put them after ; e. g. Vhomme juste, sage, et pieax ; 
the just, wise, and pious man. 

§ 349. XII. Adjectives denoting general dimension are 
always placed before the other words specifying the dimen- 
sions, not after as in English ; e. g. une riviere large de 

* To this rule there is the following exception : When an ordinal 
number, or a cardinal number used as an ordinal, does not take the 
definite article, it is placed after the substantive; e. g. litre premier, 
first book, ckapitre second, second chapter, page trente, thirtieth page. 
The royal style falls under this principle; e. g. Francois premier, 
Francis First, Henri quatre, Henry Fourth. 

t But qi/.c'.conque, whatever, is always placed after the substantive ; 
e. g. aVune manitre quclconquc, in whatever manner, une chose qvcl- 
eonqne, anything whatever. 

t Yet, when these Adjectives occur in such intimate connection 
with other words that they cannot well be separated from them, the 
Adjective often follows the substantive ; e. g. uncfennru belle com me 
un angc v a. woman beautiful as an angel, Un homme brave commc son 
tpe'e, a man brave as his own sword. So in case these Adjective* 
occur in connection with other Adjectives, as stated in § 34^. 



$$ 349—353. adjective. 81 

deux milles, a river two miles wide, un mur haul de vingt 
pieds, a wall twenty feet high.* 

§ 350. XIII. Some Adjectives, when used in one sense 
are placed before the substantive, when used in another after ; 
e. g. sage femme, mid-wife, femme sage, sensible woman ; 
honnete homme, honest man, liomme Iwnnete, polite man.f 

Additional Peculiarities. 

§ 351. Degrees of Comparison in French are not, as in 
many languages, denoted by a change of form in the Adjec- 
tives themselves, but by the use of additional words. The 
adverb plus, more, is used alone to designate our comparative 
degree, and the same Adverb with the definite article (le, la, 
or les, according to the gender and number of the substan- 
tive,) for the superlative degree : e. g. grand, great ; compar. 
masc. sing, plus grand, fern. sing, plus grande, masc. pi. %)l us 
grands, fern. pi. plus grandes ; superl. masc. sing, le plus 
grand, fern. sing, la plus grande, masc. pi. les plus grands, 
fern. pi. les plus grandes, 

§ 352. The following Adjectives have peculiar compara- 
tives and superlatives : bon, good, compar. meilleur, superl. 
le meilleur ; mauvais or mediant, bad, compar. pire, superl. 
le pire ; and petit, little, compar. moindre, superl. le moindre.% 

§ 353. If in a comparison more than one Adjective be 
used with the substantive, the sign of the comparative or su- 
perlative degree must be repeated before each Adjective, not, 
as is allowable in English, be used only before the first Ad- 



* Another form of expression is possible and common in cases of 
this nature; e, g. une riviere qui a deux miltes de largeur, a river 
which has two miles of breadth, un mur qui a vingt pieds de hauteur. 
a wall which has twenty feet of height. 

t See Appendix K for a considerable enumeration of such Adjec- 
tives. 

t AH of these Adjectives but hon, good, may form their degrees of 
comparison regularly by the use of plus and le plus. 



82 §§ 353—357. pronoun. 

jective ; e. g. a Vhomme le plus sage, le plus brave, et le plus 
honnete, to the most wise, brave, and polite man. 

§ 354. When an adjeciive employed superlatively is pre- 
ceded by such expressions as ce qtfil y a, ce queje sais, ce 
quefai, etc. connected with the superlative by the preposi- 
tion de, the definite article, which (according to § 351) is the 
usual sign of the superlative, is omitted ; e. g. ce qu'il y a de 
plus beau, that which is most beautiful, ce que je sais de plus 
certain c'est, the most certain knowledge that I have is this. 

§ 355. The numerals in French may be properly called 
Numeral Adjectives, They are indeed sometimes used sub- 
stantively, but so are many other Adjectives. For a particu- 
lar account of them see Appendix J. 



CHAP. IV. 

PRONOUN. 

VARIATION. 

General Statement, 

§ 356. We shall consider French Pronouns under the six 
following heads : Personal, Possessive, Relative, Absolute, 
Demonstrative, and Miscellaneous, All the Possessive Pro- 
nouns belong to the class of Adjective Pronouns (comp. § 
361.) AH the Personal Pronouns are Substantive. So are 
the Relative and Absolute Pronouns, except sometimes the 
Pronoun quel. So too are the Demonstrative Pronouns, ex- 
cept sometimes the simple Pronoun ce, with its variations. 
As to the Miscellaneous Pronouns, see §§ 373-6, for a state- 
ment of their character in this respect. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

§ 357. In French there is a peculiar Pronoun for each 
Person, and the Pronouns of the first and second Persons are 



§§ 357—362. pronoun. 83 

of the same form for each Gender. The French Pronoun of 
the third Person differs from the English in these two re- 
spects : (1) it has different Genders in the Plural as well as 
in the Singular, and (2) it has but two Genders, the mascu- 
line and the feminine, in either. 

§ 358. The Pronoun of the first Person is je, moi, or me 
for the Singular, and nous for the Plural. 

§ 359. The Pronoun of the second Person is tu, toi, or te 
for the Singular, and vous for the Plural. 

§ 360. The Pronoun of the third Person is il, lui, le, se, 
or soi for the Singular Masculine ; elle, la, se, or soi for the 
Singular Feminine ; Us, eux, leur, les, or se for the Plural 
Masculine ; and elles or se for the Plural Feminine.* 

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 361. The Possessive Pronouns in French may be divided 
into two classes : those which always precede some substan- 
tive, and those which are always used absolutely, some sub- 
stantive being understood. 

§ 362. The following are the Possessive Pronouns which 
always precede a substantive, together with the variations to 
which they are subject : 

(a.) 1st Pers. Mon, my, masc. sing. ; ma, my, fern. sing. ; 
mes, my, common pi. ; notre, our, common sing. ; nos, our, 
common pi. 

(b.) 2d Pers. Ton, thy, masc. sing.; ta, thy, fern, sing.; 
tes, thy, common pi. ; voire, your, common sing. ; vos, your, 
common pi.* 

(c.) 3d Pers. Son, his, her, or its, masc. sing. ; sa, his, her, 
or its, fern. sing. ; ses, his, her, or its, common pi. ; leur, 
their, common sing. ; leurs, their, common pi. 



* It will be observed that soi is of Common Gender, being used 
for both the Masculine and Feminine Singular, and that se is not on- 
ly of Common Gender, but also of Common Number, being used for 
both the Masculine and Feminine in both the Singular and the Plu- 
ral. 



84 §§ 363—366. pronoun. 

§ 363. The following are the Possessive Pronouns which 
are always used absolutely, the substantive to which they re- 
late being understood : 

Masc. sing. Fern. sing. 

Le mien, mine, la mienne, mine. 

Le tien, thine, la tienne, thine. 

Le sien, his, her, or its, la sienne, his, her, or its. 

Le noire, ours, la noire, ours. 

Le voire, yours, la voire, yours. 

Le leur, theirs, la leur, theirs. 

Masc. plur. Fem. plur. 

Les miens, mine, les miennes, mine. 

Les tiens, thine, les iiennes, thine. 
Les siens, his, her, or its, les siennes, his, her, or its. 

Les notres, ours, les noires, ours. 

Les voires, yours, les voires, yours. 

Les leurs, theirs, les leurs, theirs.* 

RELATIVE PROWOUyS. 

§ 364. Certain Pronouns in all languages are called Rela- 
tive Pronouns, because they relate grammatically to to some 
word or phrase called the Antecedent. In one sense all Pro- 
nouns, and indeed all words, must be relative ; but these Pro- 
nouns are considered as being so in a special manner. 

§ 365. There are the following Relative Pronouns in 
French : qui, who, which, or whom, que, whom or which, 
dont, of whom, or of which, quoi, what, quel, who or what, le- 
quel, which or who. 

§ 366. All the Relative Pronouns but quel and lequel un- 
dergo no change of form, being of common Gender and of 
either Number. The forms quel and lequel are masc. sing. 
Their fern. sing, is, quelle, laqucJle ; their masc. pi. quels and 
lesquels ; their fem. pi. quelles and Icsquelles. The Article of 

* These Pronouns are invariably accompanied by the Definite Ar- 
tie le. 



§§866-371. pronoun. 85 

the Pronoun lequel is united with de or a preceding, so as to 
make but one word of the two, whenever the preposition and 
the article would be united if they were alone (see § 210) ; 
e. g. duquel, auquel, desquels, desquelles, aiixquels, auxquelles. 

ABSOLUTE PROJYOUJSTS. 

§ 367. This class of Pronouns comprises all the Relative 
Pronouns, when they are used by way of interrogation or ex- 
clamation or in any other case without a proper antecedent. 
Dont is the only one of the Relative Pronouns which is never 
thus used. 

§ 368. Some grammarians will not make a distinction be- 
tween the absolute and relative use of these Pronouns; but 
clearly there is an essential difference of construction in the 
two cases. As examples of Absolute Pronouns take the fol- 
lowing phrases : Qui est la ? who is there ? Qui demandez- 
vous ? whom are you asking for ? Que faUes-vous la ? what 
are you doing there ? A quoi pensez-vous ? of what are you 
thinking? Quel est Vhomme assez hardi, etc. ? who is the 
man bold enough, etc. ? Quelle instability ! what fickleness ! 
Quelles sont vos raisons ? what are your reasons ? 

DEMOXSTP^TIVE PROXOUXS. 

§ 369. The principal Demonstrative Pronoun is ce, this. 
From this all the rest are formed. The masc. sing, is ce or 
cet ; the fern. sing, cette ; the masc. and fern. pi. ces. 

§ 370. The chief Pronoun derived from ce is celui, this. 
Celui is the masc. sing. ; the fern. sing, is celle ; the masc. pi. 
is ceux ; the fern. pi. is celles. 

§ 371. The other Demonstrative Pronouns are formed from 
those already mentioned by adding to them the particles ci, 
here, or Za, there. E. g. ceci, this, cela, that ; celui-ci or celle- 
ci, this ; ceux-ci or celles-ci, these ; celui-la or celle-la, that, 
ceux-la or celles-la, those.* 

* In all these derivative Pronouns, except ceci and cela, it will be 

8 



86 §§372—380. pronoun. 



MISCELLANEOUS PROJYOUJYS. 

§ 372. There are a great many other words usually de- 
nominated Pronouns, which cannot well be classified, and 
therefore I speak of them as Miscellaneous. They are com- 
monly called Indefinite or Indeterminate ; but these epithets 
are properly applicable to very few of them. The Pronouns 
referred to are : aucun, any, any one, autre, other, autrui, 
others, certain, certain, clxacun, each one, chaque, every, en, of 
it, of them, etc., mime, same, nul, no, no one, on, one, they, 
etc., personne, nobody, plusieurs, several, quelconque, what- 
ever, etc., quelque, some, quelqtfun, some one, quiconque, 
whoever, rien, nothing, tel, such, tout, every, every one, etc., 
y, to it, to them, etc. 

§ 373. Some of these Pronouns are always Adjective Pro- 
nouns ; others always Substantive Pronouns ; others still 
sometimes Adjective and sometimes Substantive. 

§ 374. The Pronouns which are always Adjective are : 
certain, cliaque, quelconque, and quelque. 

§ 375. The Pronouns which are always Substantive are : 
autrui, clxacun, en, on, personne, quelqu'un, quiconque, rien, y. 

§ 376. The Pronouns which are sometimes Adjective, 
sometimes Substantive, are : aucun, autre, mime, nul, plusi- 
eurs, tel, tout. 

§ 377. Aucun, any, any one, has a fern. sing, aucune. It 
also has a pi. masc. aucuns, and a pi. fern, aucunes. 

§ 378. Autre, other, is of common gender in the sing. 
Its pi. form for both genders is autres. 

§ 379. Autres, others, is always pi. and exhibits no variation 
of form. 

§ 380. Certain , certain, has a fern. sing, certaine ; masc. 
pi. certains; fern. pi. certaines. 

seen, the ce or la is joined to the other component part of the Pro- 
noun by a hyphen. In all but ccla, too, the la appended has a grave 
accent over the a, as when it stands alone adverbially. 



§§ 381—396. pronoun. 87 

§ 381. Chacun, each one, has a fern. sing, chacune : it has 
no plural. 

§ 382. Chaque, every, is of common gender in the singu- 
lar. It has no plural. 

§ 383. En, of it, etc., is invariable. 

§ 384. Meme, same, is of common gender in the sing. ; 
its pi., likewise of common gender, is memes. 

§ 385. Nnl, no, no one, has a fern. sing, nulle ; masc. pi. 
nuls ; fern. pi. nulles. 

§ 386. On, one, they, etc., is invariable. It is of common 
gender. In relation to other words it is always considered as 
of the nom. case singular and the third person. 

§ 387. Personne, nobody, as a Pronoun, has no plural, and 
is always masculine in the singular. 

§ 388. Plusieurs, several, is invariable. It is, of course, 
always plural. 

§ 389. Quelconque, whatever, is of common gender in the 
sing. ; its pi., likewise of common gender, is quelconques. 

§ 390. Quelque, some, is of common gender in the sing. ; 
its pi., likewise of common gender, is quelques. 

§ 391. Quelqu'im, some one, has a fern. sing, quelqu'une; 
masc. pi. quelques-uns ; fern. pi. quelques-unes. 

§ 392. Quiconque, whoever, has no pi. It is usually, though 
not always, masc. in the sing. 

§ 393. Rien, nothing, is invariable as a Pronoun. It is 
always masc. 

§ 394. Tel, such, has a fern. sing, telle ; masc. pi. tels ; 
fern. pi. telles. 

§ 395. Tout, every, every one, etc., has a fern. sing, toute ; 
masc. pi. tons ; fern. pi. loutes. 

§ 396. Y, to it, etc., is invariable. 



88 §§ 397-400. pronoun. 

determination of form. 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

§ 397. The regular nominatives* singular of these Pro- 
nouns are : je for ihe first person, tu for the second, il for the 
third person masc, and elle for the third person fern. ; e. g. 
je crains, I fear, tu frappes, thou strikest, il aime, he loves, 
elle court, she runs. 

§ 398. The nominatives singular after a verb, when another 
nominative precedes the verb (i. e. whenever a nominative 
comes after a verb, except in interrogative sentences) are : moi 
for the first person, toi for the second, lui for the third person 
masc, and elle (as in other cases) for the third person fern. ; 
e. g. c*est moi, it is I, cefut toi, it was thee, c'est lui, it is he, 
cefut elle, it was she. 

§ 399. The nominatives singular after a conjunction, with 
a verb understood to follow, are the same as those specified in 
the last sect. ; e. g. il le sait mieux que moi, he knows him bet- 
ter than I, ce ne peut etre que toi, this can be only you, j^ecris 
comme lui, or comme elle, I write as he does, or as she does. 

§ 400. The nominatives singular are the same as those 
specified in § 398, whenever there is a reduplication of the 
nominative, there being an apposition of what is called a 
nominative independent with the regular nominative ; and so, 
too, in all cases of the nominative independe?it, as in exclama- 
tions, etc. ; e. g. moi, qui vous aime, I, who love you, toi, par- 
ler ainsi ! thou, to talk thus ! lui, il parle autrement, as for 
him, he talks othervvise.f 

* By nominative is here meant what is often called subject. 

t It may be observed that all these three cases stated in § § 393, 
399, 400, of variation from the regular nom. are reducible to this 
principle : whenever the nom. is not nom. to any verb expressed, the 
form of the nom. is not the regular one, stated in § 397, but as stated 
in § 398. There is another case, sometimes occurring, of use of the 
irregular nominatives in such phrases (called (listributivc)<xs the follow- 



§§401—403. pronoun. 89 

§ 401. The regular singular objective* forms of the Per- 
sonal Pronouns are : me for the first person, te for the second, 
le for the third person masc, and la for the third person fern, ; 
e. g. il me dit, he tells me,je te vois, I see thee,je le frappe, 
I strike him, je la hais, I hate her. 

§ 402. Whenever a preposition is understood in sense be- 
fore a Pronoun object of the third person, the form for both 
genders is lui ; e. g. je lui parle, I speak to him (or to her), 
je lui donne du papier, I give some paper to him (or to her). 

§ 403. The objective singular, when it occurs after a verb 
in the imperative which governs it, is as follows : moi always 
for the 7^ person, toi always for the second, le (regular) for 
the third person masc. when it is a direct object, i la (regular) 
for the third person fern, when it is a direct object, and lui for 
the third person either masc. or fern, when it is an indirect 
object ; e. g. donnez-moi, give me, retire-toi, withdraw your- 
self, jrappez-le, strike him, frappez-la, strike her, donnez-lui, 
give to him, or to her.| 

ing : mesfreres et mon cousin vi'unt sccouru ; eux jk'ont relevd, et lui 
rrC apansi, my brothers and cousin assisted me ; they took me up, and 
he dressed my wounds. These forms of the Pronoun are employed 
here to make the distinction between the persons intended more for- 
cible than it would be in using Us and il. 

* By objective is here meant any form governed by a verb instead 
of being nom. to it. 

t By direct object is meant an object before which no preposition 
is expressed or understood ; by indirect object is meant one before 
which a preposition is either expressed or understood. The cases in 
§ 402 are cases of indirect objects. 

X This rule, it is to be noticed, relates only, as stated, to cases in 
which the Pronoun occurs after an imperative. (Comp. § 461.) Fur- 
ther, the imperative must govern the Pronoun. Hence in such cases 
as, vencz me parler, come and speak to me, the rule does not apply, 
me not being governed by venez, but by parler. The sense is not 
come me, but speak to me. In laissez-moi dormir, however, the case 
is different ; moi being governed by taissez. In all such cases the 
Pronoun is connected with the imperative by a hyphen; in others 

8* 



90 §§404—409. pron °un. 

§ 404. The objective singular forms after a preposition 
expressed are : moi for the first person, toi for the second, lui 
for the third person masc, and celle for the third person fern. ; 
e. g. pour moi, for me, par toi, by thee, avec lui, with him, 
a elle, to her. 

§ 405. The objective singular forms when used in apposi' 
lion with other objectives singular, are always : moi for the 
first person, toi for the second, and lui for the third; e. g. 
voudriez-vous me perdre ? moi ? would you ruin me ? me ? 
toi ? je te soupponnerai ? thee ? shall I suspect thee ? aimez- 
le ; lui qui etc. love him ; he who etc.* 

§ 406. The objective singular forms are the same as in the 
last section whenever they are preceded by the conjunction que 
in such negative expressions as the following : rtaimer que 
moi, je le trouve bon, that you love only me, I am glad, ne 
frapper que lui, c'est etc., to strike only him, is etc. 

§ 407. The plural form, for the first person, whether ?iomi- 
native or object, is always nous ; e. g. nous aimons, we love, 
on nousfrappe, they strike us, donnez-nous, give us, pour nous, 
for us. 

§ 408. The plural form for the second person, whether 
nominative or object, is always vous ; e. g. vous aimez, you 
love, on vous frappe, they strike you, taisez-vous, be silent, 
pour vous, for you. 

§ 409. The regular nominatives plural of the third person 
are : Us for the masc, and elles for the fern. ; e. g. Us rient, 
they (masc.) laugh, elles chantent, they [fern.) sing. 

not. — After all, there is one exception to this rule, viz. : moi and toi, 
when they are placed after the imperative and are followed by en, 
become me and te ; e. g. donnez irten, give me some, reiourne fen, 
go back. 

* To this rule may probably be referred such expressions as the 
following, often called distributive : protegez-nous ; lui, a cause de sa 
bontt, et moi, parceque etc., protect us ; him, on account of his good- 
ness, and me, because etc. The pronouns fact and moi may be con- 
gidered as unitedly in apposition with nous. 



§§ 410 — 415. pronoun. 91 

§ 410. The nominatives plural of the thirdjrierson, when 
they are not nominatives to any verb expressed (as in cases 
corresponding with those stated concerning the singular in 
§§ 398, 399, 400,) are : eux for the masc, and elles (regular) 
for the fern. ; e. g. c'est eux qui agissent, it is they (masc) 
who act, c'est elles qui rient, it is they (fern.) who are laugh- 
ing, elle est plus sage qu'eux, she is wiser than they (masc), 
il est plus sage qu* elles, he is wiser than they (fern.), eux, qui 
vous aiment ! they, who love you ! 

§ 411. The regular plural objective form of the third per- 
son is les for both the masc. and fern. ; e. g. je les frappe, I 
strike them (either masc. or fern.), frappez~les, strike them. 

§ 412. Whenever a preposition is understood in sense be- 
fore the pi. Pronoun of the third person (in which case the 
Pronoun is not a direct object), the form of the Pronoun is 
leur for both genders ; e. g. je leur donne du papier, I give 
them (either masc. or fern.) some paper, faites leur donner du 
vin, cause some wine to be given to them. 

§ 413. The plural objective forms of the third person after 
a preposition expressed are : eux for the masc, elles for the 
fern. ; e. g. c* est pour eux, it is for them, elle parole d? elles, she 
speaks of them. 

§ 414. The Personal Pronoun se (of common gender and 
either number, see note p. 83) is seldom used except in 
reflexive verbs (see § 528). It is sometimes, however, em- 
ployed as the indirect object of a verb which has at the same 
time a direct object ; e. g. se donner du mouvement, to put 
one's self in motion, se prescrire un devoir, to prescribe a 
duty to one's self. The idea of self always belongs to this 
Pronoun. 

§ 415. The Personal Pronoun soi (of common gender, see 
note, p. 83) can never, perhaps, with strict propriety, occur in 
its simple form, save with a preposition ; e. g. chacun Ira- 
vaille pour soi, every one labors for himself, etre a soi, to be 
independent. Without a preposition it is commonly joined with 
mime ; e. g. ilfaut conduire ses affaires soi-meme, one must 



92 §§ 415 — 417. pronoun. 

conduct his affairs himself, c'est hair soi-meme, this is to hate 
one's self.* The idea of self always belongs to this Pronoun. 

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 416. The English Possessive Pronouns which are always 
accompanied by a substantive vary only so as to denote the 
number, and, as to the third person singular, the gender of 
the possessor : my, our, thy, your, his, her or its, their. The 
French Pronouns of the same class denote only the number 
of the possessor, never the gender ; but they surpass the En- 
glish Possessive Pronouns in this respect, that when the pos- 
sessor is of the singular number they always denote precise- 
ly the number of the person or thing possessed, and its gen- 
der if it be of the singular number : e. g. mon pere, my father, 
ma mere, my mother, mesfreres, my brothers, mes smirs, my 
sisters, son anneau, his or her ring, sa bourse,h\sor her purse, 
ses mains, his or her hands. When the possessor is of the 
plural number, the French Pronouns denote the number, but 
not the gender of the person or thing possessed : e. g. notre 
travail, our labor, nos parens, our parents. 

§ 417. In regard to the other classes of Possessive Pronouns 
in French which are always used absolutely, without any sub- 
stantive, the case is the same, excepting in one respect, viz. 
that when the possessor is of the singular number (not other- 
wise,) the gender of the person or thing possessed is denoted 
when it is of the plural number, as well as when it is of the 
singular : e. g. les miens, mine (masc), les miennes, mine 
{fern.), les siens, his, her, or its (masc), les siennes, his, her, 
or its (fern.) ; but, les notres, ours (masc. or fern.), les leurs, 
theirs (masc. or fern.) 

* Soi is sometimes found uncompounded without a preposition, as 
ccst souvent soi qu'on trompc, it is often one's self that is deceived, 
on n'aune que soi, we only love ourselves. These expressions, how- 
ever, are of doubtful authority. — Soi sometimes occurs in composi- 
tion with disant ; e. g. un soidisant trcntilhomme, one who calls him- 
self a gentleman. 



§§ 418—420. pronoun. 93 

§ 418. The general rule in relation to both the classes of 
French Possessive Pronouns is, that, so far as the above prin- 
ciples will allow, they agree in gender and number with both 
the possessor and the possessed. In the expression, votre 
amour, your love, votre is plural in signification as respects 
the persons possessing and yet singular as respects the thing 
possessed. In the expression, tes prieres et les miennes, thy 
prayers and mine, tes and les miennes are singular in signifi- 
cation as respects the possessor and yet plural as respects the 
thing possessed. 

§ 419. The feminine Pronouns, ma, ta, sa, are changed to 
the masculine ones, mon, ton, son, before any feminine sub- 
stantive beginning with a vowel or h mute ; e. g. mon dme, 
my soul, ton epee, thy sword, son oreille, his ear, mon habi- 
tude, my habit. 

§ 420. The French say, remettez ces medailles chacune en 
sa place, put back these medals each in its proper place ; but, 
Dieu nous rendra a chacun selon nos azuvres, God will render 
to us each according to his works, and, vous aurez chacun 
votre part, you shall have each his part. The explanation 
of the difference of construction in these and other like cases 
is contained in the following rule : whenever the chacun oc- 
curs between the verb and its object, whether that object be a 
single word or a clause, the Possessive Pronoun that follows 
chacun must in French {not, in a like case, in English) agree in 
number with the preceding nominative or accusative to which 
it refers, and not with chacun; otherwise, it agrees with chacun. 
Take the following sentences as further exemplifications of 
this rule : nous danserons chacun a sa tour, we shall dance 
each in his turn, ces auteurs ont chacun leur merite, these 
authors have each their merit, les hommes devraient avoir, 
chacun pour leur propre interet, de V amour les uns pour les 
autres, men ought for their own interest to have affection for 
each other, lisez ces livres chacun a sa tour, read these books 
each in its turn, les hommes devraient s ^ aimer, chacun pour 



94 §§ 420—425. pronoun. 

son propre interet, men ought to love one another, each for 
his own interest, & ont rempli chacun leur devoir, they have 
fulfilled each his duty. 

RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE PROjYOUJYS. 

§ 421. The pronoun qui is used for the English nomina- 
tives, who, which ; and when so used it may be of either gen- 
der and of either number, and may be applied to things as 
well as persons ; e. g. Vhomme pu lafemme qui va la, the man 
or woman who goes there, qu'est-ce ? who is it ? les oiseaux 
qui chantent, the birds which sing., Us etoiles qui brillent, the 
stars which shine, le cheval qui mange Vherbe, the horse which 
eats the grass. 

§ 422. Qui may be used as the object of a preposition when 
persons are referred to, but cannot be used of things ; e. g. 
a qui parlez-vous ? to whom do you speak ? Vhomme de qui 
on aparle, the man of whom we have spoken, (but) le cheval 
dont (or duquel) je me sers, the horse of which I make use. 

§ 423. Qui is seldom or never used as an object without a 
preposition except in interrogations, and then it must always 
relate to a person ; e. g. qui cherchez-vous ? whom are you 
seeking ? 

§ 424. The Pronoun que is used for the English Objective 
Pronouns, whom, which, what, that. It is always the object of 
a verb ; never of a preposition. It may be of either gender 
and of either number and may relate either to persons or 
things ; e. g. Vhomme que vous voyez, the man whom you see, 
les Uoiles que vous observez, the stars which you are observ- 
ing, que lisez-vous 7 what are you reading ? Van que j^ai 
passe, the year which I have passed. 

§ 425. The Pronoun dont corresponds with the English, 
of whom, of which, and sometimes to with whom, with which* 
It is used for either gender and either number, and for either 
persons or things ; e. g. Vhomme dont j^ai parle, the man of 
whom J^ have spoken, la montre dont il icrit, the watch of 



§§ 425 — 432. pronoun. 95 

which he writes, les femmes dont fed songe, the women of 
whom I have dreamed, la regularity dont il vit, the regulari- 
ty with which he lives. It can never have an interrogative 
import, and can never begin a sentence, N. B. It must always 
stand next to its antecedent. 

§ 426. In cases where in English of whom or of which has 
rather the sense of from whom or from which, dont is inadmis- 
sible ; de qui must be used. E. g. celui de qui je tiens cette 
nouvelle, the person of whom {from whom) I have this infor- 
mation. 

§ 427. The Pronoun quoi corresponds with the English 
what. It is used for either gender and either number , but is 
applicable only to things ; e. g. ce sont choses a quoi vous ne 
prenez pas garde, these are things in regard to which you do 
not take care, a quoi pensez-vous ? about what are you think- 
ing ? 

§ 428. Quoi is always used, instead of any other Relative 
Pronoun, when a previous clause of a sentence is referred to, 
in such expressions as the following : la vie passe comme un 
songe ; e'est cependant a quoi on ne pense gueres, life passes 
like a dream ; of which (truth), however, we scarce ever 
think. 

§ 429. Quoi never occurs without a preposition, except in 
the expression,^ ne sals quoi, I know not what, and in the 
law-phrase, quoi faisant, doing which. 

§ 430. The Pronoun quel corresponds with the English 
who, which, what. As has been stated (§ 366), it varies its 
form according to the gender and number of the substan- 
tive to which it relates. 

§ 431. Quel is commonly an Adjective Pronoun ; e. g. il 
ne salt quel parti prendre, he knows not what resolution to 
take^'e vous ai dit quelle femme c*est, I have told you what 
woman it is, quelle incertitude ! what uncertainty ! 

§ 432. Quel is never a Substantive Pronoun unless it be in 
interrogative sentences, such as, quelles sont ces femmes-la ? 



96 §§ 432—438. pronoun. 

who (or what) are those women ? quel est Vhomme assez hardi 
pour cela ? who (or of what nature) is the man sufficiently 
bold for this ?* 

§ 433. The Pronoun lequel corresponds with the English 
who, which, what. As has been stated (§ 366), it varies its 
form according to the gender and number of the substantive 
to which it relates. 

§ 434. Lequel is always a Substantive Pronoun, and differs 
from the other Relative and Absolute Pronouns in being more 
definite in its reference. This special definiteness may be 
ascribed in part to the definite article which enters into its 
composition. 

§ 435. Lequel is generally, if not always, used in speaking 
of choice among two or more persons or things ; e. g. lequel 
aimez-vous le mieux de ces deux tableaux ? which (one) of 
these two pictures do you like best ? choisissez laquelle vous 
voudrez, choose which you please. 

§ 436. Lequel is always used as a relative instead of qui 
when special definiteness is intended ; e. g. on a oui trois U- 
moins, lesquels ont dit, we have heard three witnesses, which 
(witnesses) have said. 

§ 437. As, according to § 422, qui can never be used of 
things after a preposition, whenever which (denoting a thing) 
occurs in English after a preposition, the French cannot use 
qui, but very often use lequel instead ; e. g. le moyen duquel 
il s^est servi, the means which he made use of, c'est une con- 
dition sans laquelle il ne veut rien faire, it is a condition 
without which he will not do anything. 

§ 438. Lequel is always used instead of qui or dont when- 

* Perhaps it may be said generally, that quel is always employed in 
an adjective sense, and that, in such expressions as are adduced in this 
section, qui would be used were there only a substantive sense inten- 
ded. The words quelles and quel in the two cases cited may be con- 
sidered as relating, adjectively, to a description of the persons refer- 
red to, according to -the translation of them in brackets, rather than, 
substantively, to a mere designation of them. 



§§438—442. pronoun. 97 

ever without lequel there would be an ambiguity which can be 
avoided, e. g. c'est Vamitie de cet homme qui rrCa sauve would 
be ambiguous ; for it is not clear whether qui refers to amitii 
or to homme. Hence we should rather use laquelle or lequel, 
according to the real reference intended. 

§ 439. When the Relative occurs at a distance from the 
word to which it refers, it is considered better to use duquel 
(with its variations, § 366) than de qui;* e. g.fai envoyt un 
courier a la cour, au relour duquel (not de qui), I have sent a 
courier to court, at whose return, le prince a la protection du- 
quel, the prince to whose protection, la Tamise dans le lit de 
laquelle, the Thames in whose bed. 

§ 440. It is generally considered best to employ qui, que, 
quoi, or dont, instead of lequel, whenever the former can be so 
employed in consistency with the principles above laid down ; 
e. g. les rots a qui (not auxquels) on doit obeir, kings, whom we 
ought to obey, le del dont (not duquel) le secours, heaven, 
whose assistance, le prince dont la protection, the prince, 
whose protection. Yet some still use lequel in x many such 
cases. (See the two examples in § 437, where dont certainly 
might with propriety be used instead of duquel, and quoi in- 
stead of laquelle.) 

§ 441. The Relative and Absolute Pronouns which are 
variable agree ^(it is hardly necessary to say,) with the sub- 
stantive to which they refer, in both gender and number; 
e. g. quel homme est-ce ? what man is this ? quell es fem?nes ! 
what women ! laquelle de ces deux maisons aimez vous h 
mieux ? which of those two houses do you love the best? 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 442. When in English it with any form of the verb to be 
is followed by a substantive, a pronoun, an adjective used as 



* From what is said at the end of § 425, it may be seen that dont can- 
not be used in such cases. 

9 



98 §§ 442—448. pronoun. 

a substantive, or a preposition, ce (not il) is always used in 
French for the English Pronoun it; e. g.fiit-ce nosfils, were 
it our sons, est-ce les Anglois ? is it the English ? Jest moi qui 
vols Vennemi, it is I who see the enemy, c'est le sublime, it is 
the sublime, Jest a ces dieux que je m'addresse, it is to these 
gods that I address myself. 

§ 443. When in English he, she, or they is used with any 
form of the verb to be, either ce or il (with its variations) may 
in general be employed in French ; e. g. Jest (or elle est) une 
honnete femme, she is an honest woman, c'est (or il est) un 
homme a ne jamais revenir de ses premieres idees, he is a man 
who will never give up his first ideas. 

§ 444. When ce is used in French with the verb etre, to be, 
it undergoes no change from connection with a plural form of 
the verb ; e. g. ce (not ces) sont des Anglois, those are Eng- 
lish, cefurent les Frangois qui assiegerent la ville, it was the 
French who besieged the city. 

§ 445. Ce is used with etre to denote either gender and 
either number ; e. g. Jest unefllle, it is a girl, Jest un homme, 
it is a man, J est les femmes qui, etc., it is the women who, etc. 

§ 446. Whenever ce is followed by a Relative Pronoun it 
always means a thing, it can never relate to persons. E. g. 
ce quifiatte must mean what flatters, not who flatters ; ce que 
faime must mean that which I love, and not he whom I love. 

§ 447. The English forms, he who or whom, she who or 
whom, they or those ivho or whom, are never expressed in 
French by il qui or que, elle qui or que, etc. but by the forms 
of the Demonstrative Pronoun celui (see § 370) ; e. g. celui 
or celle qui chante, he or she who sings, ceux or celles qui m(> 
prisent, they or those (masc. ov fern.) who despise, celui que 
faime, he whom I love, celles quefai vues, those (fern.) whom 
I have seen. 

§ 448. The Pronouns ceci and cela are properly applied 
only to thi?igs. Yet in familiar language the last, cela, is 
sometimes applied to persons ; e. g. cela ne fait que jouer, 



§§ 448—453. pronoun. 99 

that child does nothing but play, cela estjier, that's a haughty 
fellow. 

§ 449. The pronoun cela is not always opposed to ceci, 
and when it is not it may be used concerning something held 
in the hand or otherwise close to us ; e. g. que dites-vous de 
cela 7 what do you say of that ? When it is contrasted with 
ceci, it means something further off than what is denoted by 
ceci ; e. g. je ii'aime pas ceci, donnez-moi de cela, I do not 
love this, give me some of that. 

§ 450. The Pronoun celui is applicable to things as well as 

persons ; e. g. de toutes les choses du monde, c*est celle que 

faime le mieux, of all things in the world, it is that that I love 

the best, les arbres que vous voyez, c'est ceux que fai achetes, 

the trees which you see, they are those which I bought. 

§ 451. The Pronoun celui is never used adjectively, as ce 
very often and indeed generally is ; e. g. we may say cet 
homme, thqt man, but not celui homme. All the Demonstrative 
Pronouns except ce are properly substantive Pronouns. 

§ 452. There is a mode of phraseology very like an ex- 
ception to what has been stated in the preceding section. The 
Demonstrative Pronouns ceci and cela are often divided, the ce 
being used adjectively before a substantive and the ci or la 
being appended to the substantive by means of a hyphen ; 
e. g. ce chapeau-ci, this hat (here), cette femme-la, that woman 
(there), ce.s gargons-ci, these boys (here).* 

§ 453. The particles ci and la are added to celui in order 
to render it more precise. Without these particles celui does 
not always necessarily mean this, nor does it necessarily mean 
that. Ci or la determines its signification when the context 
would leave it doubtful. 

* The Id, in these cases always has the grave accent over the a. as 
in cclui'la^eic. Hence some, perhaps more correctly, consider such 
forms of expression as notdeducible from the Pronouns ceci and ce.'a. 
but as merely displaying a use of the particles ci and la with the 
Pronoun cc, in the same way as they are used with celui. (See § 453.) 



100 §§454—460. pronouns. 

MISCELLANEOUS PRONOUNS. 

§ 454. The Miscellaneous Pronouns which are used adjec- 
lively agree in gender and number with the substantives 
which they qualify, according to the variations of form ex- 
hibited in §§ 377 seq. 

§ 455. The Miscellaneous Pronouns which are used sub- 
stantively agree in gender and number with the substantives, 
understood or expressed, for which they stand or to which they 
refer, according to the variations of form exhibited in § 377 
seq. 

§ 456. The Pronoun personne, which is masculine, is never 
used save of persons ; the Pronoun Hen, which is likewise 
masculine, is never used save of things, 

POSITION. 

§ 457. A Personal Pronoun which is the subject of a verb is 
always, except in the case mentioned in the next section, placed 
before the verb, and it can never be separated from it, save 
by one or more other Pronouns or by the negative particle ne; 
e. g. je vous aime, I love you, je ne vous aime pas % I do not 
love you, je ne m'y fie pas y I do not trust to it. 

§ 458. In sentences which exhibit direct interrogations , the 
Personal Pronoun which is the subject of the interrogation 
always follows the verb immediately ; e. g. dorUil ? is he 
sleeping ? court-elle ? is she running ? 

§ 459. Whenever Pronouns of different persons occur to- 
gether, forming in fact the common subject of a verb, whether 
there be an apposition or not, the person speaking names 
himself last, and the person addressed is named first ; e. g. 
vous et moi, nous irons a la campagne, you and I will go into 
the country, vous, voire frere, et moi, nous demeurerons ici y 
you, your brother, and I, will stay here. 

§ 460. A Personal Pronoun which is the object of a verb 
is always placed between the subject and the verb, when the 
sentence is not either interrogative or imperative ; e. g. il 
vrCaime^ he loves me,je vous vois, I see you. 



$§461—466. PRONora. 101 

§ 461. When a sentence is interrogative, a Personal Pro- 
noun which is the object is put before the verb, though the 
subject is put after it ; e. g. nfappelez-vous ? are you calling 
me ? vous effraye-t-il ? does he frighten you ? 

§ 462. Whenever a Personal Pronoun occurs as the object 
of a verb in the imperative mood, first or second person, and 
the sentence is an affirmative one, the object is placed after 
the verb ; but if the sentence be a negative one, or the verb 
be of the third person, the object is placed before the verb. 
E.g. dites-moi, tell me (§403), abandonnons-les, let us abandon 
them ; but, ne me dites-pas, do not tell me (§ 401), ne me h 
donnez-pas, do not give it to me, quHl lui en parle, let him 
speak to her of it, quHls nous envoient, let them send us. 

§ 463. When two imperatives, with each a Pronoun as 
object, occur together in an affirmative sentence and are joined 
by the conjunction et or ou, it is considered best to place the 
first object after the first verb and the second object before the 
the second verb ; e. g. voyez-le et lui dites de venir me voir, 
see him and tell him to come and see me, gardez-les ou les 
renvoyez, keep them or send them back, polissez-le sans cesse 
et le repolisses, polish it unceasingly and repolish it. 

§ 464. When two Personal Pronouns occur together before 
the verb as objects, the indirect object must precede the direct 
one, unless both Pronouns are of the third person, in which 
case the direct object precedes the indirect one ; e. g.je vous 
le dirai, I will tell it to you, vous nous les donnerez, you will 
give them to us, je le lui dirai, 1 will tell it to him, vous les 
leur donnerez, you will give them to them. 

§ 465. When two Personal Pronouns occur together after 
the verb as objects (i. e. in an affirmative sentence with an im- 
perative mood, § 462), the direct object precedes the indirect 
in all cases ; e. g. donnez-le-nGus, give it to us, donnez-le-lui, 
give it to him. 

§ 466. If the Pronoun y or en, or both of them, occur in 
connection with a Personal Pronoun, the Personal Pronoun 
9* 



102 §§466—473. pronoun. 

must in all cases be placed first ; e. g. pretez rrCen, lend 
me some, il nous en donnera, he will give us some, vous leur 
y en enverrez, you will send them some there.* 

§ 467. When the Pronouns y and en occur together, en 
always follows y, as in the last example in the preceding sec- 
tion. As another example take : je vous y en temoignerai 
mon mecontentement, I will there testify to you my dissatisfac- 
tion on that point. 

§ 468. A Pronoun which stands as subject to a verb can 
never be separated from it except by other Pronouns standing 
as objects or by the negative particle ne ; e. g. je ne lui en 
veux rien dire, I will say nothing to him about it, il nous ra- 
conta son histoire, he related to us his history. 

§ 469. A Pronoun which stands as object to a verb can 
never be separated from it by any word except tout, every- 
thing, rien, nothing, or jamais, never ; e. g. c*est leur tout re- 
fuser, it is refusing them everything, tfest ne me rien permettre, 
it is allowing me nothing, il a jure de ne lui jamais par don- 
ner, he has sworn never to pardon him. 

§ 470. The Pronoun tout, when used as the object 
of a verb, is placed after the verb in simple tenses, and be- 
tween the auxiliary and the participle in compound tenses ; 
e. g. il avoue tout, he avows everything, il a tout avoiU, he 
has avowed everything. 

§ 471. All the Pronouns which are used adjectively (save one, 
see next section,) precede the substantive to which they relate ; 
e. g. cet liomme, that man, aucune femme, any woman, etc. 

§ 472. The Adjective Pronoun quelconque always occurs 
after the substantive to which it relates ; e. g. un homme quel- 
conque, any man, une ligne quelconque, any line. 

§ 473. All the Pronouns which are used substantively fol- 
low the rules of substantives as to position, whenever the case 
is not otherwise regulated by either of the foregoing principles. 

* There is one exception to this rule, viz. : moi is always placed 
after y ; e.g. mencz-y-moi, lead me thither. But we must say, me- 
nez-nous-y, lead us thither. 



§§ 474—478. pronoun. 103 

Additional Peculiarities. 

§ 474. The plural form of the Pronoun of the second 
person is almost always used in French, as in English, in- 
stead of the singular, whether the Pronoun be subject or ob- 
ject ; e. g. vous avez mon chapeau, you have my hat, je vous 
aime, I love you,je vous dis, I tell you. 

§ 475. The singular Pronoun of the second person is often 
used, by way of familiarity, in addressing children or those 
with whom we are very intimate or free, and sometimes in an 
oratorical or poetical style in addressing the Deity or in other 
modes of apostrophe ; e. g. que veux-tu, mon enfant ? what do 
you wish, my child ? m^amie, feras-tu un message pour moil 
sweetheart, will you do a message for me ? a toi appartient le 
regne, thine is the kingdom, O mort ! tu n'es pas un malheur, 
O death ! thou art not an evil. 

§ 476. Whenever vous is used for tu, te, or toi, according 
to § 474, any word which by common rules would agree with 
it in number, (excepting the verb,) is notwithstanding, as in 
English, put in the singular number; e. g. vous etes habile, 
you are skilful, vous serez le maitre, you will be master. 

§ 477. The following Pronouns of the third person, elle, 
elles, eux, lui, and leur, are very seldom applied to things. 
Whenever things are intended, the Pronoun y or en should be 
used, if possible, instead of these Personal Pronouns. E. g. 
je m'en approchai, I approached it (a table), hot je m'approchai 
d?elle, which would mean, I approached her. 

§ 478. Such is the reluctance of the French to apply the 
Pronouns mentioned in the last section to things, that when 
the expression each of them occurs, which would be rendered 
by chacun d?eux or chacune d^elles in case persons were in- 
tended, the Personal Pronoun and the preposition are entirely 
omitted when persons are not intended ; e. g. vous avez deux 
chapeaux, combien avez-vous donne de chacun ? you have two 
hats, what did you pay for each of them ? voila trois cartes^ 



104 §§ 478—481. pronoun. 

je mets tant sur chacune, there are three cards, I lay so much 
on each of them. 

§ 479. The Pronoun le is used in a somewhat peculiar 
manner, to represent a preceding part of a sentence, an adjec- 
tive, a substantive employed adjectively, or a proper substan- 
tive; and it is then always placed immediately before the verb 
of which it is the object or subject. E. g. pourriez-vous oiler 
h pied de Boston a New York ? Oui,je le pourrois, could you 
go on foot from Boston to New York ? yes, I could (it, i. e. 
do so) ; vous etes industrieux, et il ne Vest pas, you are in- 
dustrious and he is not (it or so) ; est-elle file ? Oui, et elle 
le sera long-temps, is she unmarried ? Yes, and will be (so) 
this great while ; etes-vous roi ? Oui,je lesuis, are you a king? 
yes, I am (it). 

§ 480. Whenever the Pronoun le, used as is stated in the 
last section, stands for an adjective or a part of a sentence, 
it never undergoes any change as respects gender and num- 
ber ; but, if it stand for a substantive or for an adjective em- 
ployed substantively, le is changed to la for the feminine and 
les for the plural. E. g. ites-vous trhs occupies ? Nous le som- 
mes, are you very much occupied ? We are (so) : but, etes-vous 
reine ? Oui,je la suis, are you a queen ? Yes, I am (it) ; etes- 
vous la malade ? Non, je ne la suis pas, are you the sick 
woman ? No, I am not ; etes-vous mes files ? Oui, nous les 
sommes, are you my daughters? Yes, we are. 

§ 481. Whenever in English a verb has two or more nomi- 
natives of different persons, there is no difficulty in the con- 
struction, because the form of the verb in English is the 
same for all the persons of the plural number. Thus we say : 
you and I read ; he, she, and I, went to the play ; etc. In 
French, however, the construction must be different, because 
the several plural persons of the verb are not the same. The 
usual praciice is, to place the several nominatives first and 
then subjoin the plural of that person which ranks first, (the 
first person taking precedence of the second and third, and 



§§ 481—485. pronoun. 105 

the second of the third,) together with the corresponding 
person of the verb ; e. g. vous et moi, nous lisons, you and I 
read, lui, elle, et moi, nous alldmes hier a la comedie, he, she, 
and I went to the play yesterday, vous et ltd, vous apprendrez 
le Francois, you and he will learn French, Jean et vous, vous 
etes industrieux, John and you are industrious. 

§ 482. Sometimes, in such cases as those referred to in the 
preceding section, the Pronouns of the several persons are 
placed after the verb, the rest of the construction according 
with the rule laid down in that section ; e. g. nous irons, lui 
et moi, we shall go, he and I, nous alldmes hier a la comedie, 
lui, elle, et moi, we went to the play yesterday, he, she and I. 

§ 483. When several nominatives of the same person occur 
together before a verb, it is never the case that a plural Pro- 
noun of any person is added, but the verb follows the nomi- 
natives regularly in the proper person ; e. g. mon frere et lui 
viendront demain, my brother and he will come to-morrow, 
lui, elle, eux, et ma sozur apprennent le Franpois, he, she, they, 
and my sister are learning French, 

§ 484. Personal Pronouns of the first and second person, 
when employed as a subject, must be repeated before every 
verb in a sentence if the tenses are not the same, and it is 
always better that they should be thus repeated even though 
the tenses be the same ; e. g.je soutiens etje soutiendrai tou- 
jours, I maintain and (I) will always maintain, accable de dou- 
leur, je m'ecriai et je dis, overwhelmed with sorrow, I ex- 
claimed and (I) said, le Dieu que nous aimons et que nous 
adorons, the God whom we love and (whom we) adore, vous 
aimeret le seigneur votre Dieu et vous observerez sa hi, you 
shall love the Lord your God and (you shall) observe his law. 

§ 485. When a Personal Pronoun of the third person is 
employed as a subject, it is seldom, if ever, repeated before 
every verb in a sentence, unless those verbs be in different 
tenses. E. g. la bonne grace ne gate rien ; elle ajoute a la 
bcaute, releve la modestie, et y donne du lustre, a graceful 



106 §§485—489. pronoun. 

manner spoils nothing ; it adds to beauty, sets off modesty, 
and gives it lustre ; il est arrive ce matin et il reparlira ce 
soir, he arrived this morning and (he) will set off again this 
evening. 

§ 486. A Personal Pronoun employed as an object must al- 
ways be repeated in French in connection with each verb, 
though in English it is generally employed with the last verb 
only ; e.g. les ecoliers vous aiment et vous craignent, the scholars 
love (you) and fear you, Videe de ses malheurs le poursuit, 
le tourmente, et Vaccable, the idea of his misfortunes pursues 
(him), torments (him), and overwhelms him.* 

§ 487. Whenever vous, the plural Pronoun of the second 
person, is used for iu, etc. (see § 474,) the corresponding 
Possessive Pronouns, voire, vos, must be used instead of ton, 
la, tes ; and le voire, la voire, and les votres must be used in- 
stead of le tien, la tienne, les tiens, les tiennes : e. g. que vous 
ressemblez peu a vos ance.tr es ! how little you resemble your 
ancestors ! quand vous aurez entendu nos raisons, nous ecou* 
ierons les votres, when you have heard our reasons, we will 
listen to yours. 

§ 488. The Definite Article is often used instead of a Pos- 
sessive Pronoun when it can be ivithout ambiguity ; e. g. fax 
tnal a la tete, I have a pain in my head, or the head-ache, il 
faudrait lui couper lajambe, it would be necessary to take off 
his leg, il s^est rompu le cou, he has broken his neck. 

§ 489. The Pronoun en is very frequently used instead of 
a Possessive Pronoun, when persons are not intended and 
when it can be so used without ambiguity. E. g.faime Bos- 
ton, fen admire Vexacte police, et les mazurs rrCen paraissent 
fort louables, I love Boston, I admire its exact police, and 
its manners appear to me very commendable ; la rue est 

* In case, however, the repetition of the same action is expressed 
by a compound verb, the Pronoun need not be repeated ; e. g. je vous 
le dis et redis, 1 say it to you and resay it, il le fait et le rtfait sans 
ce?se, he does it over and over again constantly. 



§§ 489—495. pronoun. 107 

longue, mats fen vols le fin, the street is long, but I see its ter- 
mination ; montrez-moi ces las, fen aime la couleur, show me 
those stockings, I like their color ; cette plante est commune, ei 
cependant je rfen connois pas les vertus, this plant is common, 
and yet I do not know its virtues. 

§ 490. In English we say : this book is mine, these gloves 
are yours, etc. The French do not use the Possessive Pro- 
noun in such cases, but a Personal Pronoun with the preposi- 
tion a ; e. g. ce livre est a moi, this book is mine, ces gants 
sont a vous, these gloves are yours, etc. 

§ 491. In English we use the expressions : for my sake, 
for your sake, etc. The French do not use a Possessive Pro- 
noun in such cases. They say, pour V amour de moi, for the 
love of me, pour V amour de vous, for the love of you, etc. 

§ 492. In English we say : a friend of mine, a pupil of 
yours, etc. The French never use this form of expression. 
They say always, un de mes amis, one of my friends, un de 
vos eleves, one of your pupils, etc. 

§ 493. In English we are not always required to repeat the 
Possessive Pronoun before each of several substantives occur- 
ring in succession, but in French this is always necessary ; 
e. g. son per e, sa mere, el ses freres sont de retour, his father, 
mother, and brothers have come back, je lui ai montre mes 
plus beaux el mes plus vilains habits, I have shown him my 
finest and worst dresses, il halt ses parens, ses amis, et sa fa- 
mille, he hates his relatives, friends, and family. 

§ 494. In English we frequently omit the Possessive Pro- 
noun in addressing persons familiarly, while in French it 
must always be expressed ; e. g. voulez-vous du beurre, ma 
sceur ? will you have some butter, (my) sister? non, mon 
fre\re, no, (my) brother. 

§ 495. In French the Relative Pronoun qui is frequently 
used as the only expressed nominative to two verbs ; e. g. qui 
veut trop se /aire craindre se fait rarement aimer, he who 
wishes too much to make himself feared seldom makes him- 



108 



§§ 495 — 500. pronoun. 



self beloved. In such cases the real nominative to the second 
verb is celui understood, which is, too, the antecedent of the 
Relative Pronoun qui. 

§ 496. The Absolute Pronoun que is sometimes used for 
a quoi or de quoi; e. g. que sert la science sans le vertu ? of 
what use is learning without virtue ? que sert a Vavare aV avoir 
des tresors 1 of what use is it to the miser to possess treasures ? 

§ 497. The Relative Pronoun which, used as an object, 
may often be omitted in English, but the French Pronoun que 
cannot be thus omitted, and it must be repeated before every 
verb that governs it ; e. g. les livres que vous avez achetes, the 
book (which) you have bought, le Dieu que nous aimons et que 
nous adorons, the God (whom) we love and (whom we) wor- 
ship, lafemme que vous aimez, the woman (whom) you love. 

§ 498. Some of the Absolute Pronouns are often connected 
with the particle que in a peculiar manner, so as to change 
their sense somewhat. E. g. qui que, whoever ; as, qui que tu 
sois, whoever thou mayest be, qui que ce soil, whoever it may 
be : quoi que, whatever ; as, quoi que ce soil, whatever it may 
be : quel que, whoever or whatever ; as, quel que soil cet homme, 
whoever that man may be, quel que soil voire courage, 
whatever your courage may be : quelque que, whatever or 
however ; as, quelque raison que vous donnez, whatever reason 
you may give, quelque puissant que vous soyez, however pow- 
erful you may be. In all such cases the Pronouns are varied 
separately, as though not connected with the particle que ; e. g. 
quelleques soient vos raisons, whatever may be your reasons, 
quels que soient vos desseins, whatever may be your designs. 

§ 499. The particle oil is sometimes employed precisely 
like a Relative Pronoun ; e. g. ce sont des affaires ou je suis 
embarrasse, these are affairs in which I am perplexed, voila 
une chose d'ou depend le bonheur public^ that is a thing on 
which the public happiness depends, tcls sont les lieux par ou 
il a passe, such are the places through which lie has passed. 

§ 500. The Demonstrative Pronoun ce, followed by a Rela- 



§§500—505. pronoun. 109 

live Pronoun, then by a verb, and then sometimes by other 
words, often forms, with these words, the subject of a suc- 
ceeding clause, of which the verb is some form of etre, to be ; 
and in these cases the Demonstrative Pronoun is sometimes 
repeated before the verb, etre, of the succeeding clause, and 
sometimes not. The following rules will determine this point : 

§ 501. I. When the verb, etre, of the second clause is fol- 
lowed by another verb, the Demonstrative Pronoun must be 
repeated ; e. g. ce quefaime le plus, c*est d'etre seul, what I 
like most is to be alone. 

§ 502. II. When the verb, Sire, of the second clause is 
followed by an adjective, the Demonstrative Pronoun must not 
be repeated ; e. g. ce dont vous venez de meparler est horrible, 
what you have been mentioning to me is horrible. 

§ 503. III. W^hen the verb, etre, of the second clause is 
followed by a substantive in the singular, the Demonstrative 
Pronoun may either be repeated or not, at pleasure, though it 
is generally considered best that it should not be ; e. g. ce que 
je dis est la verite, or e'est la verite, what I say is the truth. 

§ 504. IV. When the verb, etre, of the second clause is 
followed by a substantive in the plural, or by a Personal Pro- 
noun, the Demonstrative Pronoun must be repeated ; e. g. ce 
qui mHndigne, ce sont les injustices qu'on ne cesse de faire, 
what provokes me is the injuries which are continually com- 
mitted, ce qui nx'arrache au sentiment qui ni'accable, e'estvous, 
what alleviates the grief that oppresses me is you. 

§ 505. The Pronoun autre is sometimes connected with 
Vun, In this case, if there be no conjunction, the sense is, 
each other ; e. g. lejeu et Veau se detruisent Vun V autre, fire 
and water destroy each other. If Vun and V autre be con- 
nected by the conjunction et, the sense is, both ; e. g. Vun et 
Vautre ont raison, both are right. If they be connected by 
the conjunction ou, the sense is, either ; e. g. Vun ou Vautre 
est preferable a rien, either is preferable to nothing. If they 

10 



110 §§ 505—510. pronoun. 

be connected by the conjunction ni, the sense is, neither ; e. g. 
je ne le dirai ni a Vun ni a V autre, I will tell it to neither. 

§ 506. The Pronoun autre is sometimes used in the plural 
apparently without any real meaning, but only in very famil- 
iar discourse ; e. g. nous autres hommes, we men, vous autres 
femmes, you women. 

§ 507. The Pronoun autrui is (as has been said, § 379,) 
always of plural signification, is never accompanied by an 
^article or adjective, but always preceded by a preposition ; 
e. g. parler par la louche d' autrui, to speak by the mouth of 
others, chez autrui, with others.* 

§ 508. The Pronoun en always implies the relation ex- 
pressed by the preposition de, and the Pronoun y the relation 
expressed by the preposition a ; e. g. avez-vous du vin ? oui, 
fen ai, have you wine ? yes, I have some, venez-vous de la 
cour 1 oui, fen viens, do you come from court ? yes, I come 
from thence, allez-vous a Veglise ? oui,fy vais, are you going 
lo church ? yes, I am going thither. 

§ 509. The preposition en is used in French in a great 
many cases in which it is not expressed in English ; e. g. 
vous avez plus d? oranges que je n'en ai, you have more 
oranges than I, vous rt avez pas tant de livres que fen ai, you 
have not so many books as I have, il en est de vous comme de 
moi, it is with you as it is with me, fen tiens, I am caught, 
je n'en puis plus, I can do no more. 

§ 510. The Pronoun on is used very frequently in French 
to avoid the use of the passive voice, which is so common in 
English, but is employed as seldom as possible in French ; 
e. g. on n*a pas encore repu les lettres qu'on attendait, the let- 
ters which were expected have not been received, on a fait de 
grandes rejouissances, et Von ne salt trop pourquoi, great re- 



* The only exception to this statement is, the chancery expression, 
sauf en autres choses notre droit et V autrui en toutcs, saving in other 
things our right and the right of others in all (Uautrui here standing 
for le droit d 'autrui). 



§§ 510—514. PRONOCJN. Ill 

joicings have been made, and it is not well known why, on 
espere quHls arriveront deraain, it is hoped that they will ar- 
rive tomorrow. 

§ 511. The Pronoun on must be repeated before each of 
several verbs of which it is the subject ; e. g. on epie la for- 
tune, on travaille, on se fatigue, on cherche tous les moyens de 
la fixer, we watch fortune, labor, fatigue ourselves, and seek 
every method of fixing it. 

§ 512. The Pronoun mtme is often appended to the Per- 
sonal Pronouns, moi, toi, lui, elle, soi, nous, vous, eux, and elles, 
in which case it is equivalent to our word self It is never 
appended to je, tu, il, or Us. It has been said (§§ 414 and 
415) that the Pronouns se and soi always convey the idea of 
self, and the Pronouns me, te, nous, and vous do likewise in 
Reflexive verbs (see § 555 seq.) ; the question may therefore 
arise, how are we to determine when we shall use these Pro- 
nouns and when mtme is to be employed ? In answer, I ob- 
serve, that whenever Pronouns without mtme convey the idea 
of self, they are the object of a verb, never the nominative ; 
and that the Pronouns with mtme are generally in apposition 
with some other Pronoun or a substantive, or else are governed 
by some preposition, which can never be the case with the 
other Pronouns when they have the sense of self E. g. 
c^est le del lui-meme qui nous montre un avenir, it is heaven 
itself which shows us a hereafter, Us se sont perdus eux-mimes, 
they have ruined themselves, le monde estime Men des choses 
qui en elles-mtmes sont fort mtprisables, the world prizes many 
things which in themselves are very contemptible. 

§ 513. The Pronoun tel exhibits a somewhat singular idiom 
in such expressions as, vous ne sauriez me persuader rien de 
tel, you cannot persuade me of any such thing. So too in 
this : tel fait des liberalizes, qui ne paye pas ses dettes, the 
same man gives liberally who does not pay his debts. 

§ 514. The Pronoun tout exhibits a somewhat peculiar 
idiom in such expressions as, toute petite qu'elle est, small as 
she is, toute femme qu'elle est, woman as she is. 



112 §§ 515—519. verb. 



CHAP. V. 

VERB. 

VARIATION. 

General Statement, 

§ 515. The Verbs of the French language, like those of the 
English, are either Transitive or Intransitive, commonly 
called, though less correctly, Active or Neuter. Transitive 
Verbs are those which necessarily suppose some object on 
which they may operate ; Intransitive Verbs are those which 
require no such object. E. g. posseder, to possess, is a Transi- 
tive Verb, since it requires an object, something to be pos- 
sessed ; but dormir, to sleep, is Intransitive, for we cannot 
sleep any thing. 

§ 516. The Verbs of the French language, like those of the 
English, are varied by means of Voice, Mode, Tense, Num» 
her, and Person. 

§ 517. There are two Voices in French, as in English, viz. 
the Active and the Passive. The Passive Voice properly be- 
longs only to such Verbs as are Transitive. This results 
necessarily from the definition we have given of Transitive 
and Intransitive Verbs. The Passive Voice is formed in 
French, as in English, by the aid of an Auxiliary Verb. 

§ 518. There are five Modes in French, viz. the Infinitiv e,the 
Indicative, the Conditional, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative. 
There are besides two Participles, the Present and the Past, 
which may also perhaps be properly called Modes of the Verb. 

§ 519. The Infinitive Mode merely expresses the action or 
quality of the Verb ; and it contains no indication of number 
or person, and only a very general one of time. The Indica- 
tive asserts the action or quality of the Verb, and contains like- 
wise a definite indication of number, person and time. The Condi- 
tional asserts the action or quality of the Verb with a condition ; 



§§ 519—523. verb. _ 113 

and it contains likewise an indication of number, person and 
time. The Subjunctive denotes that the action or quality of 
the Verb is doubtful, uncertain ; and it contains an indication 
of number, person, and time. The Imperative denotes the 
idea of command, entreaty, invocation, and the like ; and it 
contains an indication of number, person, and of present time. 
The Participle may be called an adjective form of the Verb : 
it contains an indication of time, but not of person ; and the 
past participle may indicate number, while the present cannot. 
§ 520. There is one simple Tense in the Infinitive Mode, 
viz. the Present; there are four simple tenses in the Indica- 
tive, viz. the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Fu- 
ture ; there is one simple tense in the Conditional, viz. the 
Present ; there are two simple tenses in the Subjunctive, viz. 
the Present and the Imperfect ; there is but one tense of any 
sort in the Imperative ; and there are two simple tenses of the 
Participle, viz. the Present and the Past. 

§ 521. There are as many compound Tenses as simple ones 
in each of the modes of French Verbs, excepting the Impera- 
tive, which has no compound tense, and the Participle, which 
has but one. The compound of the Present Infinitive is often 
called the Past ; the compound of the Present Indicative is 
often called the Preterite Indefinite ; the compound of the 
Imperfect, the Pluperfect ; the compound of the Perfect the 
Perfect Anterior ; and the compound of the Future the Fu- 
ture Anterior. The compound of the Present Conditional is 
often called the Past. The compound of the Present Sub- 
junctive is often called the Past; and the compound of the 
Imperfect the Pluperfect. These compound tenses are all 
formed by the aid of an Auxiliary Verb. 

§ 522. There are two Numbers in French Verbs, the sin- 
gular and plural. The distinction of number belongs to all 
the tenses of the Verb except those of the Infinitive and the 
Present tense of the Participle. 

§ 523. There are three Persons to each number, cor- 
10* 



114 §§ 523—528. veeb. 

responding with the Personal Pronouns, viz. the first, second, 
and third Persons. The distinction of Person belongs to all 
the tenses of the Verb, except those of the Infinitive and Par- 
ticiple. This statement does not apply, however, to the Verbs 
called Impersonal, which are used only in the third person 
singular. 

§ 524. The Infinitive Present of all French Verbs ends in 
one of the following terminations : er, ir, oir, or re. In Eng- 
lish its various terminations are much more numerous. 

§ 525. French Verbs are classed in four conjugations, 
according to the different terminations of their Infinitive Pres- 
ent ; Verbs of the first conjugation ending in er, Verbs of the 
second in ir, Verbs of the third in oir, and Verbs of the fourth 
in re. 

§ 526. Certain Verbs are selected as models of the varia- 
tions in these several conjugations, most of the Verbs in the 
conjugations coinciding with these models. All those Verbs 
w 7 hich do thus coincide are called Regular ; those whose forms 
deviate from the models in any very important respect are 
called Irregular. 

§ 527. Some French Verbs are Defective, i. e. are not em- 
ployed in certain modes, tenses, or persons ; e. g. bruire, to 
make a noise, is used only in the Infinitive Present, in the Pres- 
ent Participle, bruyant, and in the third person singular and 
plural of the Imperfect, bruyoit and bruyoient. 

§ 528. A peculiar class of Defective Verbs are those called 
Impersonal, which should perhaps more properly be called 
Verbs of the third person, or, as they have sometimes been 
called, unipersonal Verbs, inasmuch as they are employed 
in the third person singular and in that alone ; e. g. il pleut, 
it rains, etc. through other tenses. However, there is not 
such an impropriety in the epithet impersonal as has some- 
times been supposed ; for it cannot be said with truth that 
there is anything like a distinction of person in the forms of 
these Verbs, and thus they may, perhaps properly, be con- 
sidered as without person. 



$$529—532. verb. 115 

§ 529. There is a class of Verbs in French called Pronomi- 
nal, Reflexive, or Reciprocal Verbs. It is characteristic of these 
that their subject and object are the same person or thing. 
They are called Pronominal, because in all their variations 
they are immediately preceded by a Personal Pronoun as their 
object,* which indeed is considered as a part of the very 
name of the Verb ; e. g. se connoitre, to know one's self, je 
me connois, I know myself. They are sometimes called Re- 
flexive Verbs, because what is expressed by the verb falls lack, 
as it were, upon the subject ; e. g. il se Uesse, he wounds 
himself. They are sometimes called Reciprocal Verbs, be- 
cause they often express what persons or things do to each 
other ; e. g. Pierre et Guillaume se lattent, Peter and William 
are beating one another. 

AUXILIARY VERBS, 

§ 530. It has been said (§§ 517 and 521,) that the whole 
Passive Voice and all compound tenses of French Verbs are 
formed by the aid of Auxiliary Verbs. The Proper Auxiliary 
Verbs in French are two in number, viz. avoir, to have, and 
etre, to be. The difference between these Verbs and others 
which often have the appearance of being real auxiliary Verbs, 
viz. pouvoir, laisser, oser, etc. is this : that the two Verbs 
mentioned as proper Auxiliary Verbs are necessary to the 
complete conjugation of other Verbs through the Voices, 
Modes, and Tenses which we have enumerated, while the 
others are not. 

§ 531. All the Modes and Tenses of the Passive Voice are 
formed by the aid of the Auxiliary Verb, etre, to be. 

§ 532. The compound tenses of the Active Voice are formed 
generally by the aid of the Auxiliary Verb, avoir, to have, 
though sometimes etre is used instead of avoir. All Transi- 
tive Verbs, except those called Pronominal, Reflexive, or Re- 
ciprocal (§§ 529 and 555 seq.), and also the greater number 

* Except in the first and second persons of the Imperative. (§ 555.) 



116 



§§ 532, 533. verb. 



of Intransitive Verbs, make use of avoir as the Auxiliary Verb 
in their compound tenses. But a considerable number of In- 
transitive Verbs make use of etre in these Tenses.* 

§ 533. The Auxiliary Verb, avoir, to have, is conjugated 
as follows : 

INFINITIVE. 



Pres. Avoir, to" have. 



Comp. of Pres. Avoir eu, to 
have had. 



Pres. Ay ant, having. 
Past, Eu, had. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Comp. of Pres. 
having had. 



Ayant eu, 



INDICATIVE. 



Present. 

Singular. 
Tai, I have. 
Tu as, thou hast. 
11 a, he has. 



Comp. of Present. 
Singular. 
Tai eu, I have had. 
Tu as eu, thou hast had. 
II a eu, he has had. 



Plural. 
Nous avons, we have. 
Vous avez, you have. 
Us out, they have. 



Plural. 
Nous avons eu, we have had. 
Vous avez eu, you have had. 
lis out eu, they have had. 



Imperfect. 
Singular. 
J 1 avais, I had. 
Tu avais, thou hadst. 
11 avail, he had. 



Comp. of Imperfect. 
Singular. 
T avais eu, I had had. 
Tu avais eu, thou hadst had. 
11 avail eu, he had had. 



Plural. 
Nous avions, we had. 
Vous aviez, you had. 
lis avaient, they had. 



Plural. 

Nous avions eu, we had had. 
Vous aviez eu, you had had. 
lis avaienl eu, they had had. 



* See Appendix L for a catalogue of these Verbs, and some fur- 
ther remarks. 



§ 533. VERB. 



117 



Perfect. 

Singular. 

Tens, I had. 

Tu eus, thou hadst. 

11 eut, he had. 

Plural. 

Nous eumes, we had. 
Vous eutes, you had. 
lis eure?it, they had. 

Future. 

Singular. 
Taurai, I shall have. 
Tu auras, thou wilt have. 

II aura, he will have. 

Plural. 

Nous aurons, we shall have. 
Vous aurez, you will have. 
lis auront, they will have. 



Comp. of Perfect. 

Singular. 
Feus ew, I had had. 
Tu eus ew, thou hadst had. 
11 eut ew, he had had. 

Plural. 
Nous eumes eu, we had had. 
Vous eutes eu, you had had. 
Us eurent eu, they had had. 

Comp. of Future. 

Singular. 
J'aurai eu, I shall have had. 
Tu auras eu, thou wilt have 

had. 
II aura eu, he will have had. 

Plural. 

Nous aurons ew, we shall have 

had. 
Vous aurez eu, you will have 

had. 
lis auront ew,they will have had. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. Comp. of Present. 

Singular. Singular. 

Taurais, I should have. J'aurais eu, I should have 

had. 
Tu aurais, thou wouldst have. Tu aurais eu, thou would st 

have had. 
11 aurait, he would have. 11 aurait eu, he would have 

had. 

Plural. Plural. 

Nous aurions, we should have. Nous aurions eu, we should 

have had. 
Vous auriez, you would have. Vous auriez eu, you would 

have had. 
lis auraient, they would have. Us auraient ew, they would 

have had. 



118 



§ 533. VEKB. 



Present. 

(Que) Singular. 

JPaie, I may have. 

Tu aies, thou may est have 

11 ait, he may have. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Comp. of Present. 
(Que) Singular. 

Taie eu, I may have had. , 
Tu aies eu, thou mayest have 

had. 
U ait eu, he may have had. 



(Que) Plural. 

Nous ayons, we may have. 

Vous ayez, you may have. 

lis aient, they may have. 



(Que) Plural. 

Nous ayons eu, we may have 

had. 
Vous ayez eu, you may have 

had. 
lis aient eu, they may have 

had. 



Imperfect. 

(Que) Singular. 

Teusse, I might have. 

Tu eusses, thou mightest have. 

11 eut, he might have. 



Comp. of Imperfect. 

(Que) Singular. 

J^eusse eu, I might have had. 
Tu eusses eu, thou mightest 

have had. 
II exit eu, he might have had. 



(Que) Plural. 

Nous eussions, we might have. 

Vous eussiez, you might have. 

lis eussent, they might have. 



(Que) Plural. 

Nous eussions eu, we might 

have had. 
Vous eussiez eu, you might 

have had. 
Us eussent eu, they might 

have had. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Aie, have thou. 

QuHl ait, let him have. 



Plural. 
Ayons, let us have. 
Ayez, have you. 
Quails aient, let them have. 



§ 534. VERB. 



119 



§ 534. The Auxiliary Verb, etre, to be, is conjugated as 
follows : 



Pres. Eire, to be. 



INFINITIVE. 



Comp. of Pres. Avoir iU, to 
have been. 



Pres. Etant, being. 
Past, Ete, been. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Comp. of Pres. Ay ant 6U, 



having been. 



INDICATIVE. 



Present. 

Singular. 
Je suls, I am. 
Tu es, thou art. 
Tl est, he is. 

Plural. 

Nous sommes, we are. 
Vous etes, you are. 
lis so?it, they are. 



Comp. of Present. 

Singular. 
Tai ete, I have been. 
Tu as ete, thou hast been. 
11 a ete, he has been. 

Plural. 
Nous avons ete, we have been. 
Vous avez ete, you have been. 
lis out ete, they have been. 



Imperfect. 

Singular. 4 
Tetais, I was. 
Tu etais, thou wast. 
II etait, he was. 



Comp. of Imperfect. 

Singular. 
3^ avals ete, I had been. 
Tu avals ete, thou hadst been. 
11 avalt ete, he had been. 



Plural. 
Nous etions, we were. 
Vous etlez, you were. 
lis italent, they were. 



Plural. 
Nous avions ete, we had been. 
Vous aviez He, you had been. 
lis avalent ete, they had been. 



Perfect. 

Singular. 
Je fus, I was. 
Tufus, thou wast. 
Tl jut, he was. 



Comp. of Perfect. 

Singular. 
Teus ete 1 , I had been. 
Tu eus M, thou hadst been. 
II eut 6U, he had been. 



120 



§ 534. VERB. 



Plural. 

Nous fumes, we were. 
Vousfutes, you were, 
Ilsfurent, they were. 



Plural. 
Nous eumes ete, we had been. 
Vous elites He, you had been. 
Us eurent He, they had been. 



Future. 

Singular. 
Je serai, I shall be. 
Tu seras, thou wilt be. 

11 sera, he will be. 

Plural. 
Nous serous, we shall be. 

Vous serez, you will be. 

lis seront, they will be. 



Comp. of Future. 

Singular. 
T aural eU, I shall have been. 
Tu auras ete, thou wilt have 

been. 
U aura ete, he will have been. 

Plural. 
Nous aurons He, we shall 

have been. 
Vous aurez He, you will have 

been. 
Us auront ete, they will have 

been. 



CONDITIONAL. 



Present. 
Singular. 
Je serais,! should be. 

Tu serais, thou wouldst be. 

11 serait, he would be. 

Plural. 

Nous sermons, we should be. Nous aurions ete, we should 

have been. 
Vous seriez, you would be. Vous auriez M, you would 

have been. 
Us seraient, they would be. lis auraient M, they would 

have been. 



Comp. of Present. 

Singular. 
Taurais ete, I should have 

been. 
Tu aurais ete, thou wouldst 

have been. 
11 aurait ete, he would have 

been. 

Plural. 



§§ 534, 535. verb, 
subjunctive. 



121 



Present. 
(Que) Singular. 

Je 5015, 1 may be. 
Tu sois, thou mayest be. 

II soit, he may be. 

(Que) Plural. 

Nous soyons, we may be. 
Vous soyez, you may be. 
Us soient, they may be. 



Comp. of Present. 

(Que) Singular. 

Taie ete, I may have been. 

Tu axes ete, thou mayest have 

been. 
II ait He, he may have been. 

(Que) Plural. 

Nous ayons ete, we may have 

been. 
Vous ayez ete, you may have 

been. 
lis aient He, they may have 

been. 



Imperfect. 

(Que) Singular. 

Jefusse, I might be. 

Tu fusses, thou mightest be. 

llfut, he might be. 

(Que) Plural. 

Nous fussions, we might be. 
Vous fussiez, you might be. 
llsfussent, they might be. 



Comp. of Imperfect. 

(Que) Singular. 

Teusse ete, I might have been. 
Tu eusses ete, thou mightest 

have been. 
II eut ete, he might have been. 

(Que) Plural. 

Nous eussions ete, we might 

have been. 
Vous eussiez ete f you might 

have been. 
lis eussent ete, they might 

have been. 



Sois, be thou. 

QuHl soit, let him be. 



IMPERATIVE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Soyons, let us be. 

Soyez, be you. 

Quails soient, let them be. 



REGULAR VERBS. 
§ 535. Regular Verbs are conjugated by a change of ter- 
mination and by the aid of the Auxiliary Verbs. They are, as 



122 



§§ 535, 536. verb. 



we have said (§ 525), of the First, Second, Third, or Fourth 
Conjugation, according as they end in er, ir, oir, or re. 

§ 536. The Verb Parler, to speak, which is a model of the 
Eegular Verbs of the First Conjugation, is conjugated as fol- 
lows: 



INFINITIVE. 



Pres. Parler, to speak. 



Comp. of Pres. Avoir parli, to 
have spoken. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Pres. Parlant, speaking. 
Past, Parle, spoken. 



Comp. of Pres. Ayant parli, 
having spoken. 



INDICATIVE. 



Present. 
Singular. 
Je parle, I speak. 
Tu paries, thou speakest. 
11 parle, he speaks. 



Comp. of Present. 

Singular. 
Tai parle, I have spoken. 
Tu as parte, thou hast spoken. 
11 a parle, he has spoken. 



Plural. 
Nous parlons, we speak. 

Vous parlez, you speak. 

Us parlent, they speak. 



Plural. 
Nous avons parle, we have 

spoken. 
Vous avez parli, you have 

spoken. 
lis ont parli, they have 

spoken. 



Imperfect. 
Singular. 
Je parlais, I was speaking. 
Tu parlais, thou wast speak- 
ing. 
11 parlait, he was speaking. 



Comp. of Imperfect. 

Singular. 

JPavais parle, I had spoken. 
Tu avais parli, thou hadst 

spoken. 
11 avait parli, he had spoken. 



§ 536. VERB. 



123 



Plural. Plural. 

Nous parlions, we were Nous avions parle 1 , we had 

speaking. spoken. 

Vous parliez, you were Vous aviez parity you had 

speaking. spoken. 

lis parlaient, they were Us avaient parle, they had 

speaking. spoken. 



Perfect. 

Singular. 
Je parlai, I spoke. 
Tu parlas, thou spokest. 

11 parla, he spoke. 

Plural. 
Nous parldmes, we spoke. 

Vous parldtes, you spoke. 

lis parUrent, they spoke. 



Comp. of Perfect. 
Singular. 
feus parli, I had spoken. 
Tu eus parle, thou hadst 

spoken. 
II eut parle, he had spoken. 

PJural. 
Nous eumes parli, we had 

spoken. 
Vous eutes parle, you had 

spoken. 
lis eurent parle, they had 

spoken. 



Future. 

Singular. 
Je parlerai, I shall speak. 

Tu parleras, thou wilt speak. 

It parlera, he will speak. 

Plural. 
Nousparlerons, we shall speak. 

Vousparlerez, you will speak. 

lis parleront, they will speak. 



Comp. of Future. 

Singular. 

Taurai parle, I shall have 

spoken. 
Tu auras parle 1 , thou wilt 

have spoken. 
II aura parle, he will have 

spoken. 

Plural. 
Nous aurons parle, we shall 

have spoken. 
Vous aurez parle, you will 

have spoken. 
lis auront parle, they will 

have spoken. 



124 § 536. verb. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. Comp. of Present. 

Singular. Singular. 

Je parlerais, I should speak. Taurais parte, I should have 

spoken. 
Tu parlerais, thou wouldst Tu aurais parte, thou wouldst 

speak. have spoken. 

11 parlerait, he would speak. II aurait parte, he would 

have spoken. 

Plural. Plural. 

Nous parlerions, we should Nous aurions parte, we should 

speak. have spoken. 

Vous parleriez, you would Vous auriez parte, you would 

speak. have spoken. 

Us parleraient, they would lis auraient parity they would 

speak. have spoken. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Comp. of Present. 

(Que) Singular. (Que) Singular. 

Je parte, I may speak. JTaie parte, I may have 

spoken. 
Tu paries, thou may est speak. Tu ales parte, thou mayest 

have spoken. 
llparle, he may speak. II ait parte, he may have 

spoken. 

(Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. 

Nousparlions, we may speak. Nous ayons parte, we may 

have spoken. 
Vous parliez, you may speak. Vous ayez parte, you may 

have spoken. 
lis parlent, they may speak. Jls aient parte, they may have 



spok 



en. 



§§ 536, 537. verb. 125 

Imperfect. Comp. of Imperfect. 

(Que) Singular. (Que) Singular. 

Je parlasse, I might speak. Teusse parte, I might have 

spoken. 
Tu parlasses, thou mightest Tu eusses parte, thou mightest 

speak. have spoken. 

II parldi, he might speak. 11 eut parte j he might have 

spoken. 

(Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. 

Nous parlassions, we might Nous eussions par te, we might 

speak. have spoken. 

Vous parlassiez, you might Vous eussiez parte, you might 

speak. have spoken. 

Us parlassent, they might lis eussent parte, they might 

speak. have spoken. 



IMPERATIVE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Parlous, let us speak. 
Parle, speak thou. Parlez, speak ye. 

QuHl parle, let him speak. QuHls parlent, let them speak. 



§ 537. The Verb Finir, to finish, which is a model of the 
Regular Verbs of the Second Conjugation, is conjugated as 
follows : 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. Finir, to finish. Comp. of Pres. Avoir fini, to 

have finished. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Finissant, finishing. Comp. of Pres. Ayant finL 

Past, Fini, finished. having finished. 

11* 



126 



§ 537. VERF. 
INDICATIVE. 



Present. 

Singular. 
Je finis, I finish. 
Tu finis, thou finishest. 
11 finit, he finishes. 

Plural. 
Nous finissons, we finish. 

Vousfinissez, you finish. 

Us finissent, they finish* 

Imperfect. 
Singular. 
Jefinissais, I was finishing. 



Comp. of Present. 
Singular. 
Tax fini, I have finished. 
Tu as fini, thou hast finished. 
II a fini, he has finished. 

Plural. 
Nous avons fini, we have 

finished. 
Vous avez fini, you have 

finished. 
lis ontfini, they have finished. 

Comp. of Imperfect 
Singular. 
J * avals fini, I had finished. 



Tufinissais, thou wast finish* Tu avals fini, thou hadst fin- 
ing, ished. 

Ilfimssail, he was finishing. U avail fini, he had finished. 

Plura). Plural. 

Nous finissions, we were fin* Nous avions fini, we had fin- 
ishing, ished. 

Vous finissiez } you were fin* Vous aviez fini, you had fin- 
ishing, ished. 

lh finissaient, they were fin- lis avaient fini, they had fin- 



ishing. 

Perfect. 

Singular. 
Je finis, I finished. 
Tu finis, thou finishedst. 
Hfinit, he finished. 

Plural. 
Nousfinimes, we finished. 

Vous finites, you finished. 

lis finirent, they finished. 



ished. 

Comp. of Perfect. 

Singular. 
Teusfini, I had finished. 
Tueusfini, thou hadst finished. 
H eulfini, he had finished. 

Plural. 

Nous eumes fini, we had fin- 
ished. 

Vous cities fini, you had fin- 
ished. 

Bs eurent fini, they had fin- 
ished. 



§537. VEEB. 



127 



Future. 

Singular. 

Jejinirai, I shall finish. 
Tujiniras, thou wilt finish. 
UJinira, he will finish. 

Plural. 
Nousjinirons, we shall finish. 

VousJinirez } you will finish. 

Usjiniront, they will finish. 



Comp. of Future. 
Singular. 
J'aurai jini, I shall have fin- 
ished. 
Tu auras Jini, thou wilt have 

finished. 
11 aura Jini, he will have fin- 
ished. 

Plural. 
Nous aurons Jini, we shall 

have finished. 
Vous aurez Jini, you will 

have finished. 
Us aurontfini, they will have 

finished. 



CONDITIONAL. 



Present. 

Singular. 

Jejinirais, I should finish. 

Tu Jinirais, thou wouldst fin- 
ish. 
UJinirail, he would finish. 



Comp. of Present. 

Singular. 

Taurais Jini, I should have 

finished. 
Tu aurais Jini, thou wouldst 

have finished. 
II aurait Jini, he would have 
finished. 



Plural. Plural. 

Nousjinirions, we should fin- Nous aurions jini, we should 

ish. have finished. 

Vous Jiniriez, you would fin- Vous auriez Jini, you would 

ish. have finished. 

Us jiniraient, they would fin- Us auraient Jini, they would 

ish. have finished. 



128 § 537. verb. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Comp. of Present. 

(Que) Singular. (Que) Singular. 

Jejinisse, I may finish. Pale jini, I may have finished. 

Tujinisses, thou mayest finish. Tu axes jini, thou mayest have 

finished. 

Hjinisse, he may finish. II ait jini, he may have fin- 

ished. 

(Que) Plural. (Que) Plural 

Nous jinissions, we may fin* Nous ayonsjini, we may have 

ish. finished. 

Vousjinissiez, you may finish. Vous ay ez jini, you may have 

finished. 
Us jinissent, they may finish. Us aient Jini, they may have 

finished. 

Imperfect. Comp. of Imperfect. 

(Que) Singular. (Q ue ) Singular. 

Jejinisse, I might finish. J'eusse jini, I might have fin- 

ished. 
Tujinisses, thou mightest fin- Tu eusses jini, thou mightest 

ish. * have finished. 

lljinit, he might finish. 11 eutjni, he might have fin- 

ished. 

(Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. 

Nous Jinissions, we might fin- Nous eussions jini, we might 

ish. have finished. 

Vous jinissiez, you might fin- Vous eussiez jini, you might 

ish. have finished. 

Hsjinissent, they might finish. Us eussent jini, they might 

have finished. 



IMPERATIVE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Finissons, let us finish. 
Finis, finish thou. Finissez, finish you. 

QuHl jinisse, let him finish. QiC Us jinissent, let them finish. 



§ 538. verb. 129 

§ 538. The Verb Recevoir, to receive, which is a model of 
the Regular Verbs of the Third Conjugation, is conjugated 
as follows : 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. Recevoir, to receive. Com p. of Pres. Avoir regu, to 

have received. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Recevant, receiving. Comp. of Pres. Avoir regu, 

Past, Regit, received. having received. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present. Comp. of Present. 

Singular. Singular. 

Je regois, I receive. Ted regu, I have received. 

Tu regois, thou receivest. Tu as regu, thou hast received. 

It regoit, he receives. 11 a regit, he has received. 

Plural. Plural. 

Nous recevons, we receive. Nous avons regu, we have re- 
ceived. 

Vous recevez, you receive. Vous avez regu, you have re- 

ceived. 

lis regoivent, they receive. Us ont regu, they have re- 
ceived. 

Imperfect. Comp. of Imperfect. 

Singular. Singular. 

Je recevais, I was receiving. Tavais regu, I had received, 

Tu recevais, thou wast receiv- Tu avals regu, thou hadst re- 

ing. ceived. 

11 recevait, he was receiving. II avail regu, he had received. 

Plural. Plural. 

Nous recevions, we were re- Nous avions regu, we had re- 
ceiving, ceived. 

Vous receviez, you were re- Vous aviez regu, you had re- 
ceiving, ceived. 

lis recevaient, they were re- lis avaient regu, they had re- 
ceiving, ceived. 



130 §538. verb. 

Perfect. Comp. of Perfect. 

Singular. Singular. 

Je regus, I received. Jeus regu, I had received. 

Tu regus, thou receivedst. Tu eus regu, thou hadst re- 

ceived. 
11 regut, he received. 11 eut regit, he had received. 

Plural. Plural. 

Nous regumes, we received. Nous eumes regu, we had re- 
ceived. 

Vous regutes, you received. Vous eutes regu, you had re- 
ceived. 

lis regurent, they received. lis eurent regu, they had re- 
ceived. 

Future. Comp. of Future. 

Singular. Singular. 

Je recevrai, I shall receive. Taurai regu, 1 shall have re- 
ceived. 
Tu recevras, thou wilt receive. Tu auras regu, thou wilt have 

received. 
II recevra, he will receive. II aura regu, he will have re- 
ceived. 

Plural. Plural. 

Nous recevrons, we shall re- Nous aurons regu, we shall 

ceive. have received. 

Vous recevrez, you will re- Vous aurez regu, you will 

ceive. have received. 

lis recevront, they will re- lis auront regu, they will have 

ceive. received. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. Comp. of Present. 

Singular. Singular. 

Je recevrais, I should receive. Paurais regu, I should have 

received. 
Tu recevrais, thou wouldst re- Tu aurais regu, thou wouldst 

ceive. have received. 

II recevrait, he would receive. U aurait regu, he would have 

received. 



§ 538. verb. 131 

Plural. Plural. 

Nous recevrions, we should Nous aurions regu, we should 

receive. have received. 

Vous recevriez, you would Vous auriez regu, you would 

receive. have received. 

lis recevraient, they would lis auraient regu, they would 

receive. have received. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Comp. of Present. 

(Que) Singular. (Que) Singular. 

Je regoive, I may receive. *Paie regu 9 I may have re- 

ceived. 
Tu regoives, thou may est re- Tu axes regu, thou may est 

ceive. have received. 

11 regoive, he may receive. II ait regit, he may have re- 
ceived. 

(Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. 

Nous recevions, we may re- Nous ayons regu, we may 

ceive. have received. 

Vous receviez, you may re- Vous ayez regu, you may 

ceive. have received. 

lis regoivent, they may re- lis aient regu, they may have 

ceive. received. 

Imperfect. Comp. of Imperfect. 

(Que) Singular. (Que) Singular. 

Je regusse, I might receive. Teusse regu, I might have re- 
ceived. 

Tu regusses, thou mightest re- Tu eusses regu, thou mightest 
ceive. * have received. 

11 regut, he might receive. 11 eul regu, he might have 

received. 

(Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. 

Nous regussions, we might re- Nous eussions regu, we might 

ceive. have received. 

Vous regussiez, you might re- Vous eussiez regu, you might 

ceive. have received. 

lis regussent, they might re- lis eussent regu, they might 

ceive. have received. 



132 §§ 538, 539. verb. 



IMPERATIVE. 
Singular. * Pluial. 

Repevons, let us receive. 
Repois, receive thou. Repevez, receive you. 

QuHl repoive, let him receive. Quails repoivent, let them re- 
ceive. 



§ 539. The Verb Rendre, to render, which is a model of the 
Regular Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation, is conjugated as 
follows : 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. Rendre, to return. Comp. of Pres. Avoir rendu, 

to have returned. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Rendant, returning. Comp. of Pres. Ayant rendu, 

Past, Rendu, returned. having returned. 



INDICATIVE. 

Present. Comp. of Present. 

Singular. Singular. 

Je rends, I return. J'ai rendu, I have returned. 

Tu rends, thou returnest. Tu as rendu, thou hast re- 

turned. 
II rend, he returns. 11 a rendu, he has returned. 

Plural. Plural. 

Nous rendons, we return. Nous avons rendu, we have 

returned. 

Vous rendez, you return. Vous avez rendu, you have 

returned. 

lis rendent, they return. lis out rendu, they have re- 

turned. 



§ 539. VERB. 



133 



Imperfect. 

Singular. 
Je rendais, I was returning. 
Tu rendais, thou wast return- 
ing. 
11 rendait, he was returning. 

Plural. 

Nous rendions, we were re- 
turning. 

Vous rendiez, you were re- 
turning. 

lis rendaient, they were re- 
turning. 



Comp. of Imperfect. 

Singular. 

Tavais rendu, I had returned. 
Tu avais rendu, thou hadst 

returned. 
11 avail rendu, he had returned. 

Plural. 

Nous avions rendu, we had 
returned. 

Vous aviez rendu, you had re- 
turned. 

lis ont rendu, they had re- 
turned. 



Perfect. 

Singular. 

Je rendis, I returned. 

Tu rendis, thou returnedst. 

11 rendit, he returned. 

Plural. 

Nous rendimes, we returned. 
Vous rendites, you returned. 
lis rendirent, they returned. 



Comp. of Perfect. 

Singular. 

Jeus rendu, I had returned. 
Tu eus rendu, thou hadst re- 
turned. 
11 eut rendu, he had returned. 

Plural. 

Nous eiimes rendu, we had 
returned. 

Vous eules rendu, you had 
returned. 

lis eurent rendu, they had re- 
turned. 



Future. Comp. of Future. 

Singular. Singular. 

Je rendrai, I shall return. J^aurai rendu, I shall have 

returned. 
Tu rendras, thou wilt return. Tu auras rendu, thou wilt 

have returned. 
U rendra, he will return. II aura rendu, he will have 

returned. 
12 



134 



§ 539. VERB. 



Plural. 
Nous rendrons, we shall re- 
turn. 
Vous rendrez, you will return. 

lis rendront, they will return. 



Plural. 
Nous aurons rendu, we shall 

have returned. 
Vous aurez rendu, you will 

have returned. 
lis auront rendu, they will 

have returned. 



CONDITIONAL. 



Present. 

Singular. 
Je rendrais, I should return. 

Tu rendrais, thou wouldst re- 
turn. 
11 rendrait, he would return. 



Comp. of Present. 

Singular. 

Jaurais rendu, I should have 

returned. 
Tu aurais rendu, thou wouldst 

have returned. 
II aurait rendu, he would 
have returned. 



Plural. 

Nous rendrions, we should re- 
turn. 

Vous rendriez, you would re- 
turn. 

Us rendraient, they would re- 
turn. 



Plural. 
Nous aurions rendu, we 

should have returned. 
Vous auriez rendu, you would 

have returned. 
lis auraient rendu, they would 

have returned. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Present. 
(Que) Singular. 

Je rende, I may return. 

Tu rendes, thou mayest re- 
turn. 
11 rende, he may return. 



Comp. of Present. 

(Que) Singular. 

Taie rendu, I may have re- 
turned. 

Tu ales rendu, thou mayest 
have returned. 

11 ait rendu, he may have re- 
turned. 



§§ 539, 540. verb. 



135 



(Que) Plural. 

Nous rendions, we may re- 
turn. 

Vous rendiez, you may re- 
turn. 

Us rendent, they may re- 
turn. 



(Que) Plural. 

Nous ayons rendu, we may 

have returned. 
Vous ayez rendu, you may 

have returned. 
lis aient rendu, they may 

have returned. 



Imperfect. 

(Que) Singular. 

Je rendisse, I might return. 

Tu rendisses > thou mightest 

return. 
11 rendu, he might return. 



Comp. of Imperfect. 

(Que) Singular. 

Teusse rendu, I might have 

returned. 
Tu eusses rendu, thou mightest 

have returned. 
II eut rendu, he might have 

returned. 

(Que) Plural. 

Nous eussions rendu, we 

might have returned. 
Vous eussiez rendu, you 
might have returned. 
lis rendissent, they might Us eussent rendu, they might 
return. have returned. 



(Que) Plural. 

Nous rendissions, we might 

return. 
Vous rendissiez, you might 

return. 



IMPERATIVE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Rendons, let us return. 
Rends, return thou. Rendez, return you. 

QuHl rende, let him return. Qu'ils rendent, let them re- 
turn.* 



Observations. 

§ 540. Obs. I. Nine tenths of the Verbs in the French lan- 
guage are said to end in er, and thus belong to the First Con- 

* As has been said in § 517, the Passive Voice of French Verbs is 
formed by prefixing to their Past Participle the tenses of the auxiliary 
verb tire; e. g. je suis almc, 1 am loved, fdtais respect^, I was re- 
spected, je fus hue, 1 was praised, etc. etc. This formation is so 
simple, that it has been deemed unnecessary to present coruplr-t© 
tablesof the Passive Voice. 



136 §§ 541—545. veeb. 

jugation. Of the remaining tenth (amounting to about 300) 
two thirds, perhaps, end in ir, and thus belong to the Second 
Conjugation. Only seven end in oir, and thus belong to the 
Third Conjugation. 

§ 541. Obs. II. When a Verb ends with ger, the e is re- 
tained in those forms of the Verb in which an a or an o would 
follow the g : e. g. mangeant, Present Participle of manger, to 
eat ; songeois, Imperfect Tense of songer, to dream. The 
reason of this is, that if the e were dropped the g would have 
its hard sound before a or o. (§ 44 a.) 

§ 542. Obs. III. When a Verb ends with cer or cevoir, the 
c must have a cedilla placed under it in those forms of the 
Verb in which it is followed by an a or an o ; e. g. nous 
plagons, we place, je tragais, I traced, fefagai, I effaced, 
je repots, I receive, degu, deceived. The reason of this is, 
that c would otherwise have its hard sound before a or o. 
(§ 41 a.) 

§ 543. Obs. IV. The Verbs, appeler, to call, and jeter, to 
throw, and a very few others of the same terminations, 
double the I and the t in those forms of the Verb in which the 
Z and t are followed by an e mute : e. g. il appelle, he" calls, 
not il appele ; iljette, he throws, not iljete. 

§ 544. Obs. V. In Verbs ending in oyer and iiyer, the y 
is changed into i before a mute e : e. g. femploie, I employ, 
from employer ; fajipuierai, I will support, from appuyer. 
By some this change is extended to Verbs ending in ayer and 
eyer : e. g. il paie, he pays, from payer ; elle grasseie, she 
lisps, from grasscyer, 

§ 545. Obs. VI. When the first person singular of the 
Present Indicative, in Verbs of the First Conjugation, is used 
interrogatively with the pronounce following immediately, the 
mute e, with which the form of the Verb commonly termi- 
nates, is changed to e with the acute accent ; e. g. aime-je 1 
do I love ? neglige-je ? do I neglect ? The same is true as to 
some Verbs of the Second Conjugation : e, g. offrt-je, do I 
offer ? cueilU-je ? do I gather ? 



§ 546. VERB. 



137 



REGULAR VERBS CONJUGATED WITH Etre. 
§ 546. The Verbs which have been presented as examples 
of the regular conjugations make use of the Verb avoir as 
their Auxiliary in the compound tenses. We will now exhibit 
the conjugation of the Verb entrer, to enter, one of the In- 
transitive Verbs which require the use of etre in their com- 
pound tenses. (See Appendix L.) The Verb entrer, being 
Intransitive, has, of course, no Passive Voice. Its Active 
Voice is conjugated as follows : 



Pres. Entrer, to enter. 



INFINITIVE. 



Comp. of Pres. Etre entre 1 , to 
have entered. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Pres. Entrant, entering. 
Past, Entre, entered. 



Comp. of Pres. Etant entre, 
having entered. 



INDICATIVE. 



Present. 

Singular. 
Tentre, I enter. 
Tu entres, thou enterest. 
11 entre, he enters. 



Comp. of Present. 

Singular. 
Je suis entre, I have entered. 
Tu es entre, thou hast entered. 
11 est entre, he has entered. 



Plural. 
Nous entrons, we enter. 

Vous entrez, you enter. 

lis entrent, they enter. 



Plural. 

Nous sommes entrts, we have 
entered. 

Vous etes entres, you have 
entered. 

Us sont entris, they have en- 
tered. 



12* 



138 



§ 546. vexs. 



Imperfect. 

Singular. 

Tentrais, I was entering. 
Tu entrais, thou wast enter- 
ing. 
II entrait, he was entering. 

Plural. 
Nous entrionsy we were en- 
tering. 
Vous entriez, you were en- 
tering. 
lis entraient) they were en- 
terms. 



Comp. of Imperfect. 

Singular. 
Tetais entre, I had entered. 
Tu ttais entre, thou hadst en- 
tered. 
11 Halt entre, he had entered. 

Plural. 
Nous etions entris^ we had 

entered. 
Vous etiez entrts, you had 

entered. 
lis etaient entres^ they had 

entered. 



Perfect. 
Singular. 

J^enlrai, I entered. 

Tu entraSy thou enteredst. 

11 entra, he entered. 

Plural. 
Nous entrdmesy we entered. 

Vous entrdtes, you entered. 

Us entrerent, they entered. 



Comp. of Perfect. 

Singular. 

Jefus entrt, I had entered. 
Tu fus entrey thou hadst en- 
tered. 
Ilfut entre } he had entered. 

Plural. 

Nous fumes entreSy we had 

entered. 
Vous fates enti^eSy you had 

entered. 
lis furent entre$y they had 

entered. 



Future. 

Singular. 

Tentrerai, I shall enter. 
Tu entreras, thou wilt enter. 
11 entrera, he will enter. 



Comp. of Future. 

Singular. 

Je serai entre, I shall have 

entered. 
Tu seras entrt, thou wilt have 

entered. 
11 sera entri^ he will have 

entered. 



§ 546. verb. 139 

Plural. Plural. 

Nous entrerons, we shall en- Nous sermons entres, we shall 

ter. have entered. 

Vous entrerez, you will enter. Vous serez entris, you will 

have entered. 
lis enlreront, they will enter. II seront entres, ihey will 

have entered. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. Comp. of Present. 

Singular. Singular. 

Tentrerais, I should enter. Je serais entre, I should have 

entered. 
Tu entrerais, thou wouldst en- Tu serais enire, thou wouldst 

ter. have entered. 

II entrerait, he would enter. 11 serait entre, he would have 

entered. 

Plural. Plural. 

Nous entrerions, we should Nous serious entres, we should 

enter. have entered. 

Vous entreriez, you would en- Vous seriez entres, you would 

ter. have entered, 

lis entreraient, they would en- lis seraient entrte, they would 

ter. have entered. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Comp. of Present. 

(Que) Singular. (Que) Singular. 

Jentre^ I may enter. Je sois entre, I may have en- 

tered. 

Tu entres, thou mayest enter. Tu sois entrt, thou mayest 

have entered. 

II entre, he may enter. 11 soit entrt, he may have 

entered. 



140 



§§ 546, 547. verb. 



(Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. 

Nous entrions, we may enter. Nous soyons entris, we may 

have entered. 
Vous entriez, you may enter. Vous soyez entris, you may 

have entered. 
lis entrent, they may enter. lis soient entres, they may 

have entered. 

Imperfect. Comp. of Imperfect. 

(Que) Singular. (Q ue ) Singular. 

Tentrasse, I might enter. Je fusse entre, I might have 

entered. 
Tu enirasses, thou mightest Tu fusses entre, thou mightest 

enter. have entered. 

II entrdt, he might enter. 11 fut entre, he might have 

entered. 

(Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. 

Nous enlrassions, we might Nous fussions entres, we 

enter. might have entered. 

Vous entrassiez, you might Vousfussiez entres, you might 

enter. have entered. 

lis entrassent, they might en- lis fussent entres, they might 

ter. have entered. 



IMPERATIVE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Entrons, let us enter. 
Entre, enter thou. Entrez, enter you. 

QuHl entre, let him enter. Quails entrent, let him enter. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

§ 547. It has been already said, (§ 526,) that those Verbs 
are denominated Irregular, which deviate, in any important 
respects, from the models which have been presented in the 
several conjugations. The extent of irregularity is very vari- 
ous in different Verbs. We will not make any further re- 
marks concerning the Irregular Verbs here, but will refer to 
Appendix M for a complete representation of all of them. 



§§548—551. verb. 141 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
§ 548. The Defective Verbs of the French language will 
be found in catalogical connection with the Irregular Verbs, 
in Appendix M. 

IMPERSOX3L VERBS. 

§ 549. It has been suggested, (§ 528,) that these should 
perhaps be called Verbs of the third person, or Unipersonal 
Verbs. Custom, however, has fixed the designation Imper- 
sonal so firmly that we retain it. 

§ 550. There are two classes of Impersonal Verbs, those 
which are never used otherwise than impersonally, and those 
which are not only used in a peculiar manner as Impersonal, 
but have likewise the usual forms of conjugation as regular 
or irregular Verbs. The Verb it faut is an instance of the 
first class, and the verb ilpleut of the second. 

§ 551. The Impersonal Verb il faut is conjugated as fol- 
lows : 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres. 11 faut, it is necessary. Comp. Pres. 11 a fallu, it has 

been necessary. 

Imp. Ilfallait, it was neces- Comp. Imp. 11 avait fallu, it 

sary. had been necessary. 

Fexf.llfallut, it was neces- Comp. Perf. 11 eut fallu, it had 

sary. been necessary. 

Fut. Ilfaudra, it will be neces- Comp. Fut. 11 aura fallu, it 

sary. will have been necessary, 

CONDITIONAL. 

Pres. II faudrait, it would be Comp. Pres. II aurait fallu, it 
necessary. would have been necessary. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. QiCiljaille, that it may Comp. Pres. Qu , ilaitfallu,\\&\ 
be necessary. it may have been necessary. 

Imperf. QuHl fallul, that it Comp. Imperf. QuHl eut fallu, 
might be necessary. that it might have been 

necessary. 



142 



§§ 552, 553. verb. 



§ 552. The Impersonal Verb y avoir is conjugated as fol- 
lows : 



Pres. y avoir, there be. 



INFINITIVE. 



Comp. Pres. y avoir eu, there 
have been. 



INDICATIVE. 



Pres. 11 y a, there is. 
Imp. II y avail, there was. 
Perf. 11 y eut, there was. 



Comp. Pres. 11 y a eu, there 

has been. 
Comp. Imp. II y avait eu, 

there had been. 
Comp. Perf. II y eut eu, there 

had been. 
Fut. II y aura, there will be. Comp. Fut. 11 y aura eu, there 

will have been. 



CONDITIONAL. 



Pres. J7 y aurait, there would Comp. Pres. 11 y aurait eu, 
be. there would have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Pres. Qu'il y ait, that there Comp. Pres. Qu'il y ait eu, 

may be. that there may have been. 

Imp. Qu'il y eut, that there Comp. Imp. Qu'il y eut eu, 

might be. that there might have been. 



§ 553. The Impersonal Verb il phut is conjugated as fol- 
lows : 



INDICATIVE. 



Pres. H pleut, it rains. 



Comp. Pres. II a plu, it has 
rained. 
Imp. 11 pleuvail, it was rain- Comp. Imp. 11 avait plu, it 

ing. had rained. 

Perf. II plut, it rained. Comp. Perf. H eut plu, it had 

rained. 
Fut. 11 pleuvra, it will rain. Comp. Fut. 11 aura plu, it 

will have rained. 



§§ 553—557. verb. 143 



CONDITIONAL. 



Pres. llpleuvrait, it would rain. Comp. Pres. It aurait plu, it 

would have rained. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. QuHl pleuve, that it may Comp. Pres. QuHl aitplu, that 
rain. it may have rained. 

Imp. QuHl pint, that it might Comp. Imp. QuHl eut plu, that 
rain. it might have rained. 

§ 554. Other Impersonal Verbs are conjugated by taking 
the third persons of all the tenses as they would be formed in 
complete conjugation. Thus are conjugated : il bruine, it 
drizzles, il eclaire, it lightens, il gele, it freezes, il grele, it 
hails, il neige, it snows, il tonne, it thunders ; all according to 
the analogy of the First Conjugation. II fait, which is some- 
times considered as an Impersonal (e. g. in such expressions 
a3 il fait chaud, it is hot), is conjugated by taking out the 
third persons of the Irregular Verb faire. 

PRONOMINAL VERBS. 

§ 555. It has been said, (§ 529,) that these are Verbs 
whose subject and object are the same person or thing, and 
which are, throughout nearly all their variations, immediately 
preceded by a Personal Pronoun as their object. The only 
cases in which they are not thus preceded, are the second 
person singular and the first and second person plural of the 
imperative mode, where the Personal Pronoun follows instead 
of preceding the Verb. (See the conjugation of se repentir,\o 
repent, in § 559.) 

§ 556. The compound tenses of all these Verbs are formed, 
as was suggested in § 532, by the aid of ttre, instead of avoir. 

§ 557. Every Active Verb may be used as a Pronominal 
Verb : e. g. il se hue, he praises himself, je me connoi$ } I 
know myself. 



144 §§ 558, 559. verb. 

§ 558. Many Verbs are Pronominal in French, while the 
corresponding Verbs in English are Neuter ; e. g. il se repent, 
he repents,^ me meurs, I am dying, les livres se vendent Men, 
the books sell well. 

§ 559. The Pronominal Verb se repentir, to repent, will 
serve as a model for all Pronominal Verbs. It is conjugated 
as follows : 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. se repentir, to repent. 

c repenti \ 
Com p. of Pres. s'etre { or > to have repented. 

J 



{ repentie, 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. se repentant, repenting. 
Past, repenti, repented. 

C repenti \ 
Comp. of Pres. s^etant < or > having repented. 

I repentie, ) 



INDICATIVE. 



Present. 

Singular. 
Je me repens, I repent. 
Tn te repens, thou repentest. 
11 or elle se repent, he or she repents. 

Plural. 

Nous nous repentons, we repent. 
Vous vous repentez, you repent. 
lis or elles se repentent, they repent. 

Comp. of Present. 
Singular. 
Je me suis \ repenti \ 1 have repented. 
Tu Ces > or \ thou hast repented. 

11 or elle est ) repentie, ) he or she has repented. 



§559. verb. 146 

Plural. 

Nous nous sommes (repentis \ we have repented. 
Vous vous ites I or > you have repented. 
Us or dies se sont { repenties, ) they have repented. 

Imperfect. 
Singular. 
Je me repent ais, I repented. 
TV; te repentais, thou repentedst. 
11 or elle serepentait, he or she repented. 

Plural. • 
Nous nous repentions, we repented. 
Vous vous repentiez, you repented. 
lis or elles se repentaienl, they repented. 

Comp. of Imperfect. 
Singular. 
Je nCitais ( repenti \ I had repented. 

Tu Vttais < or > thou hadst repented. 

II or elle s^etait \ repentie, ) he or she had repented. 

Plural. 

Nous nous itions C repentis \ we had repented. 
Vous vous ttiez < or > you had repented. 
lis or elles s'etaient { repenties,) they had repented. 

Perfect. 

Singular. 

Je me repentis, I repented. 

Tu te repentis, thou repentedst. 

II or elle se repentit, he or she repented. 

Plural. 
Nous nous repentimes, we repented. 
Vous vous repentites, you repented. 
lis or elles se repentirent } they repented. 
13 



146 § 559. verb. 

Comp. of Perfect. 

Singular. 

Je me fas ( repenti \ I had repented. 

Tu te fas < or > thou hadst repented. 

11 or elle sefut ( repentie, ) he or she had repented. 

Plural. 

Nous nous fumes ( repentis 1 we had repented. 
Vous vous fates < or > you had repented. 

lis or elles sefurent ( repenties, ) they had repented. 

Future. 
Singular. 
Je me repentirai, Tshall repent. 
Tu te repentiras, thou wilt repent. 
II or elle se repentira, he or she will repent. 

Plural. 
Nous nous repentirons, we shall repent. 
Vous vous repentirez, you will repent. 
lis or elles se repentiront, they will repent. 

Comp. of Future. 

Singular. 

Je me serai ( repenti \ I shall have repented. 
Tu te seras < or > thou wilt have repented. 

II or elle se sera \ repentie, ) he or she will have repented. 

Plural. 
Nous nous serons C repentis \ we shall have repented. 
Vous vous serez < or > you will have repented. 
Us or elles se seront ( repenties, ) they will have repented. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 

Singular. 

Je me repentirais, I should repent. 

Tu te repentirais, thou wouldst repent. 

II or elle se repentirait, he or she would repent. 



§ 559. verb. 147 

Plural. 

Nous nous repentirions, we should repent. 
Vous vous repentiriez, you would repent. 
lis or elles se repentiraient, they would repent. 



Comp. of Present. 

Singular. 

Je me serais ( repenti \ I should have repented. 

Tu te serais < or > thou wouldst have repented. 

11 or elle se serait { repentie, ) he or she would have repented. 



Plural. 



Nous nous serious ( repentis \ we should have repented. 
Vous vous seriez < or > you would have repented. 

lis or elles se seraient \ repenties, ) they would have repented. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

(Que) Singular. 

Je me repente, I may repent. 

Tu te repentes, thou mayest repent. 

11 or elle se repent, he or she may repent. 

(Que) Plural. 

Nous nous retentions, we may repent. 
Vous vous repentiez, you may repent. 
Us or elles se repentent, they may repent. 



Comp. of Present. 

(Que) Singular. 

Je me sois ( repenti \ I may have repented. 

Tu te sois < or > thou mayest have repented. 

// or elle se soit { repentie, ) he or she may have repented. 



(Que) Plural. 

Nous nous soyons ( repentis \ we may have repented. 

may have repented, 
they may have repented. 



Nous nous soyons ( repentis ) we r 
Vous vous soyez < or > you 
Ih or elles se soient \ repenties, J they 



148 § 559. verb. 

Imperfect. 

(Que) Singular. 

Je me repenlisse, I might repent. 

Tu te repentisses, thou mightest repent 

II or elle se repentit, he or she might repent. 

(Que) Plural. 

Nous nous repentissions, we might repent. 
Vous vous repenlissiez, you might repent. 
lis or elles se repentissent, they might repent. 

Comp. of Imperfect. 

(Que) Singular. 

Jemefusse (repenti \ I might have repented. 

Tu te fusses < or > thou mightest have repented. 

11 or elle sefut ( repentie, ) he or she might have repented. 

(Que) Plural. 

Nous nous fussions C repentis \ we might have repented. 

Vous vousfussiez < or > you might have repented. 

lis or elles sefussent ( repenties, ) they might have repented, 



IMPERATIVE. 
Singular* 

Repens-toi) repent thou. 
Qu'il \ ( let him \ 

or > se repenty < or > repent. 
Qifelle ) \ let her ) 

Plural. 
Repent ons~nous, let us repent. 
Repentez-vous, repent thou. 
Qu'ils \ 

or > se repentent, let them repent, 
Qu'elles ) 



§§ 560—564. verb. 149 

determination of form. 

I. VOICE. 

§ 560. There is no occasion for particular remark con- 
cerning the employment of the forms which distinguish the 
Active and Passive Voices of Verbs in French, since the 
usage is the same as in English, and is very simple. No one 
who possesses even a very moderate acquaintance with general 
grammar can err on this point. 

II. MODE. 

A. Infinitive. 

§ 561. In most respects, the use of the Infinitive in French 
corresponds with its use in English (comp. § 519) ; e. g. 
voulez-vous me preter votre livre ? will you lend me your 
book ? il promet de venir, he promises to come. 

§ 562. As to the use of the prepositions a, de, and pour 
before the Infinitive, it will be more proper to treat of it under 
the head of Prepositions than in this place. (See Chap. VI. 
Particles, and Appendix P.) 

§ 563. Whenever in English a present participle is pre- 
ceded by any other preposition than in, and in cannot be 
substituted for that preposition, the participle must be ex- 
pressed in French by the Infinitive Mode ; e. g. cela ne vous 
donne pas le droit de nfinsulter, that does not give you the 
right of insulting me, je sais las de travailler, I am tired of 
working,^ me retiens d'ecrire, I keep myself from writing. 

§ 564. Whenever in English a present participle is pre- 
ceded by the preposition in, and the preposition and participle 
denote occupation or use, with immediate reference to a pre- 
ceding Verb, the French use the Infinitive Mode preceded 
fcy <* i e - g- j e m'occupe a icrire, I occupy myself in writing, 
il se plait a dessiner, he delights in drawing. 

13* 



150 § 565—569. tteKft- 

B. Participles. 

§ 565. The Present Participle is often used in French as 
an adjective, and in such cases it is varied like an adjective, 
to suit the gender and number of the substantive to which it 
relates ; e. g. c^est un homme charmant, he is a charming man, 
sa passion dominante, his ruling passion. 

§ 566. The Present Participle, in its proper use, denotes 
action, and is almost always, if not invariably, indeclinable ; 
e. g. Caroline voyant une rose voulut la cueillir, Caroline 
seeing a rose wished to pluck it, desfemmes craignant et ai- 
mant Dieu, women fearing and loving God. 

§ 56*7. We use the Participle Present after almost every 
preposition, but the French never use it after any preposition 
except en (comp. § 563) ; e. g. je crois qu*en parlant a mon 
pkre, etc., I think that in talking to my father, etc., en etudi- 
ant on apprend une langue, by studying we learn a language, 
en r entrant chez moi fax rencontre mafemme, on re-entering 
my house, I met my wife, en revenant de la campagne, in 
returning from the country. 

§ 568. In English the Present Participle is often used with- 
out a preposition as a mere substantive ; e. g. I think that 
your speaking to my father would be useful to you. No such 
use of the participle is allowable in French. Some other 
turn must be given to the sentence ; e. g.je crois que si vous par- 
liez a mon pere, vous vous en trouveriez Men, I think that if 
you were to speak to my father, some advantage would ac- 
crue to you. 

§ 569. In general, in French, the use of the Present Parti- 
ciple is avoided as much as possible. It is used in a great 
many cases in English where another turn is preferable in 
French. It can never be employed in French with an ar- 
ticle or a pronoun. In English we say : after his having 
given us that account, he burst into tears ; the French would 
say, perhaps : apres nous avoir fait ce dUail, il fondit en 
larmes. There are also other modes of turning this sentence 



§569—574. verb. 151 

in French. We say : my heing poor and your being rich is no 
reason for your insulting me ; the French might say : par- 
ceque je suis pauvre et que vous etes riche, il ne s^ensuit pas 
que vous deviez nCinsulter. 

§ 570. The Past Participle is often used in French as an 
adjective, and in such cases it is varied like an adjective, to 
suit the gender and number of the substantive to which it re- 
lates ; e. g. un homme proscrit, a proscribed man, une femme 
proscrite, a proscribed woman, des jleurs recherchees, flowers 
much sought after. 

§ 571. The Past Participle conjugated with lire in Passive 
forms always agrees with the subject of the Verb in gender 
and number ; e. g. mon pere est cheri et respectt, my father is 
loved and respected, la nuit sera bientot passee, the night will 
soon be over, Us sent fort estimes, they are very much 
esteemed, cesfemmes sont aimtes, these women are loved. 

§ 572. The Past Participle of a Transitive Verb conju- 
gated with avoir in Compound Tenses always agrees in gen- 
der and number with the object of the Verb when that object 
is direct and precedes the Participle ; e. g. la let ire que j^ai 
recue* the letter which I have received, les livres que vous 
ni'avez prttes, the books which you have lent me, les pommes 
que vous avez envoytes, the apples which you have sent. 

§ 573. The Past Participle conjugated with avoir in Com- 
pound Tenses is never varied at all when the object of the 
Verb is indirect ; e. g. la lettre dont je vous ai parU, the let- 
ter which I have mentioned to you, les profits auxquels il a 
pariicipe, the profits which he has shared. 

§ 574. The Past Participle of a Transitive Verb conjugated 
with avoir in Compound Tenses is never varied at all when 
the object of the Verb follows the Participle ; e. g. fai lu la 
lettre, 1 have read the letter, vous avez instruit ces personnes, 



■ Here que is the direct object of the Verb, and its gender and 
number are of course the same as those of its antecedent, lettre. So 
in all like cases. 



152 §574—578. verb. 

you have instructed these persons, ma mere a regu lespommes, 
my mother has received the apples. 

§ 575. The Past Participle of an Intransitive Verb is never 
varied when conjugated with avoir in its Compound Tenses, 
inasmuch as it can have no object ; e. g. cette femme a iti 
malade, that woman has been sick, Us ont He gais, they have 
been merry, elles ont dormi, they have slept. 

§ 576. The Past Participle is never varied in Impersonal 
forms ; e. g. les chaleurs quHl a fait, the heats which have 
occurred, les dipenses quHl y a ew, the expenses which have 
been incurred. 

§ 577. The Past Participle is never varied when it is im- 
mediately followed by an infinitive which is governed by the 
Participle and which itself governs the object in the expres- 
sion ; e. g. la montre que faurais voulu acheter, the watch 
which I could have wished to purchase, les maisons que fax 
fait batir, the houses which I have had built, il lui est alU 
parler, he has gone to talk with him. This is the case even 
when the infinitive is understood ; e. g.je lui ai rendu tous les 
services que fai pu (lui rendre), I have rendered him all the 
services I could, elle ne s'est pas donne 1 toutes les peines qiCelle 
aurait du (se donner), she has not taken so much pains as she 
ought* 

§ 578. The Past Participle of an Intransitive Verb con- 
jugated with etre instead of avoir in its Compound Tenses 
(§§ 532, 546, and Appendix L,) always agrees with the sub- 
ject of the Verb in gender and number ; e. g. ma sceur Halt 

* It is important to notice, that in all cases of this nature, when the 
Participle is not varied, the object is governed, as said above, by the 
infinitive and not by the Participle. If the object be governed by the 
Participle, the Participle is varied. Hence there is quite a nice dis- 
tinction in French between expressions of very different significa- 
tion. E. g. Je t'ai vu pcindrc means, I saw her portrait taken ; but 
Je Vai vue peindre means, / saio her painting. — Je Vai entcndu chanter 
means, I hare heard it (a song for instance) sung ; but Je Vai enttn 
due chanter means, / have heard her (a singer) sing. 



$§578—681. verb. 153 

partie, my sister had set out, Us Haient deja arrives, they had 
already arrived, quand elles seronl descendues, when they 
shall have come down. 

§ 579. The Past Participle in the Compound Tenses of 
Pronominal Verbs, which Tenses, it has been stated, are 
formed bv the aid of the Auxiliary Verb etre instead of avoir. 
(§§ 532, 556, and 559,) follows regularly the rules laid down 
in §§ 572, 573, 574, concerning the Participles of Compound 
Tenses formed with avoir. E. g. In the following expression : 
ma sozur se serait excusee, my sister would have excused her- 
self, the Participle is varied, because se is a direct object and 
precedes the Participle (§ 571). In the following expression : 
la faute dont on s^est repenti, the fault of which one has re- 
pented, the Participle is not varied, because the object is indi- 
rect (§ 573). In the following expression : Us se seraient at- 
tire la haine, they would have attracted hatred to themselves, 
se is an indirect object, and the direct object, haine, comes 
after the Participle, which therefore is not varied (§ 574). 
Further examples are : la haine que votre frere se serait at- 
iiree, the hatred which your brother would have drawn upon 
himself, Jes ennemis que votre sozur se serait attires, the ene« 
mies which your sister would have drawn upon herself, 

C. Indicative, 

§ 580. The Indicative Mode is, in general, employed pre* 
cisely as in English (comp. § 519) ; e. g. je vous vois, I see 
you, il m'a dit, he told me. 

§ 581. The most difficult question respecting this mode in 
French is, in what cases it is to be used after the conjunction 
que, and in what cases the Subjunctive is requisite. The use 
of the Subjunctive will be considered under its proper head. 
As to the Indicative, the rule is, that it must be employed after 
que in all cases when the preceding verb or adjective denotes 
certainty or strong belief, and the expression is not interroga* 
five or negative ; e. g, nous vimes quails nous trompaient, we 



154 §§ 581—586. verb. 

saw that they deceived us, nous sentimes que nous avions af- 
faire a un habile homme, we saw that we had to do with an 
able man, je crois qu'il viendra, I believe he will come. 

§ 582. It has been said (§ 569,) that the present participle 
is not employed so much in French as in English. The In- 
dicative Mode with the relative pronoun qui generally takes 
the place of the English participle in such expressions as, je 
le vois qui joue, I see him playing, il la irouva qui pleurait, 
he found her weeping, je les ai rencontres qui couraient la 
poste, I met them riding post. 

D. Conditional. 

§ 583. The Conditional Mode is employed whenever a clear 
affirmation is expressed by the Verb under a condition ex- 
pressed in other words, and the idea of should or would in 
English belongs to the Verb ; e. g. il viendrait sHl etait assez 
hardi, he would come if he were bold enough, vous partiriez 
si je le voulais, you would set off if I wished you to, quand 
Vavare possederait le monde il ne strait pas content, were 
the miser to possess the world he would not be contented. 

§ 584. The Conditional Mode is employed after si or quand 
when si or quand denotes doubt or a supposition, and there is 
a precedent or subsequent condition or affirmation ; e. g. 
demandez-lui s^il serait venu avec nous, suppose qu^il rfeut pas 
eu affaire, ask him whether he would have come with us, had 
he not been busy, quand Vavare possederait le monde il ne 
serait pas content, were the miser to possess the world, he 
would not be contented. 

§ 585. The Conditional Mode is often used with que in an 
exclamation, to express a toish ; e. g. que je serais content de 
rhissir dans cette affaire ! how glad I should be to succeed in 
this affair ! 

§ 586. The Conditional Mode is often employed in other 
cases, where the idea of might, could, would, or should, is ex- 
pressed in English ; e. g. croiriez-vous voire Jils ingrat 7 



§§ 586—589. 155 

could you think your son ungrateful ? Vmiriez-vous soupgonni 
<Tun tel vice ? would you have suspected him of such a vice ? 
quelle raison pourrait m'empecher dialler vous voir ? what 
cause could prevent me from coming to see you ? 

§ 587. The Indicative Mode is employed in French where 
in English a tense corresponding with the French Condi- 
tional is employed, in such forms of expression as, si voire 
frere venait avant cinq heures, priez-le de m'attendre, if your 
brother should come before 5 o'clock, request him to wait for 
me. 

E. Subjunctive. 

§ 588. The Subjunctive Mode is employed after qui, que, 
dont, oil, and any relative pronoun, when they are used to con- 
nect a Verb with an adjective in the superlative degree ; e. g- 
vous parlez du plus grand roi qui ait jamais existe, you are 
speaking of the greatest king who ever lived, c*est la plus belle 
femme que je connaisse, she is the most beautiful woman I 
know, le plus j oil jar din quHl y ait dans ces pays-la, the finest 
garden that there is in these parts, le tresor le plus precieux 
dont on puisse jouir, the most precious treasure that one can 
enjoy. 

§ 589. The Subjunctive Mode is employed after qui, que, 
dont, oil, and any relative pronoun, when they are used to con- 
nect a Verb with a negative expression, such as personne, etc. 
or with a restrictive word, such as seul, unique, premier, der- 
nier, etc. ; e. g. vous ne trouverez personne qui vous soit plus 
sinckrement attache, you will not find any body who is more 
sincerely attached to you, il n'y a pas un homme qui soit plus 
estimt que lui, there is not a man who is more esteemed than 
he, Jest le seul homme qui nous ait obliges, he is the only man 
who has obliged us, c'est Vunique moyen qui puisse les con- 
vaincre de leurfolie, it is the only means which can convince 
them of their folly, c'est le dernier remkde auquel vous puis- 



156 



§§ 589—592. verb. 



siez avoir recours, it is the last remedy to which you can have 
recourse. 

§ 590. The pronouns, quel, lequel, and quelque, in the sense 
of whatever or whichever, followed by que, require the Sub- 
junctive Mode ; e. g. quelles que soient vos affaires, venez, 
whatever your business may be, come, lequel des trois que 
vous choisissiez, pen m'imporle, it is of little importance to me 
which of the three you choose, quelques arbres qu'on puisse 
avoir, whatever trees they may have, quelques efforts que vous 
fassiez, vous ne reussirez point, whatever efforts you may 
make, you will never succeed. 

§ 591. The Subjunctive Mode is employed with que (Comp. 
§ 581) after all Verbs, Adjectives, or Participles, denoting 
doubt, uncertainty, fear, wish, permission, prohibition, or any 
strong feeling ; e. g. je doute quHl vienne, I doubt whether he 
will come, je crains quHl rfy aille, I fear that he will go there, 
il est possible quelle parte sans vous le dire, it is possible she 
will go away without telling you of it, je voudrais quails f ass- 
ent partis, I would they were gone, Dieu a permis qu'elle 
soit tombee tout d'un coup dans la miser e, God permitted her 
to fall at once into wretchedness, la pluie emptcha an* on ne 
s^alldt promener, the rain prevented our going out to walk, 
je suis surpris quails vous aient parle de la sorte, I am sur- 
prised that they have talked to you in that manner, j^ai besoin 
d'un jardin qui soit Men situe, I need a garden well situated. 
N. B. This rule applies to both affirmative and negative forms 
of expression. 

§ 592. The Subjunctive Mode is employed with que even 
after Verbs (or other words) which have not the meanings 
specified in the preceding section, whenever they are used 
negatively or interrogatively so as to indicate uncertainty 
(corap. § 581) ; e. g. je ne crois pas qtfil puisse re'ussir, I do 
not believe he can succeed, vous ne vous persuadicz pas que 
les choses pussent tourner si mal, you did not persuade your- 
self that things could turn out so \\\,penscz-vous que lapaixsc 



§§592—598. verb. 157 

fasse cet hiver 7 do you think peace will be made this winter ? 
il tfest pas certain que vous puissiez lui parler, it is not cer- 
tain that you can speak to him, quel est Vinsense qui tienne 
pour sur quHl vivra demain ? where is the madman who holds 
it certain that he shall be alive to-morrow ? 

§ 593. The Subjunctive Mode is employed with que after 
the impersonal Verb il faut ; e. g. il faut que nous ayons de 
V argent^ we must have money, il faut que je vous sois bien 
attache, it must be that I am very much attached to you. 

§ 594. The Subjunctive Mode is employed with que after 
the. adverb quelque, qualifying an adjective, in such expres- 
sions as the following : quelque belle quelle puisse tire, how- 
ever beautiful she may be, quelque riches qu'elles soient, 
however rich they may be. 

§ 595. The Subjunctive Mode is employed with que after 
the Adverb si qualifying an Adjective, in such expressions as 
the following : elle n'est pas si prudente quelle ne fasse jamais 
defaute, she is not so prudent that she never commits a fault, 
Us ii'etaient pas si genereux qu'ils donndssent tout leur Men, 
they were not so generous as to give all their property. 

§ 596. The Subjunctive Mode is employed with que after 
certain adverbial expressions, while after certain other ad- 
verbial expressions the Indicative Mode is required. For dis- 
tinct lists of these two classes of adverbial expressions, see 
Appendix N. 

§ 597. The Subjunctive Mode is employed with que in the 
second clause of a supposition commencing with si ; e. g. si 
vous entrez dans son jardin et que vous y fassiez le moindre 
degdt, if you enter his garden and commit the least waste 
there, si vous y allez et que vous y restiez, if you go there and 
remain there. 

§ 598. The Subjunctive Mode is often employed without 

any word or clause expressed on which it depends, such as 

are mentioned in § 591 ; but there is always such a word or 

clause understood. E. g. qxCil se soit oublU jusqtfa ce point ! 

14 



158 §§ 598—603. verb. 

that he should have forgotten himself to such a degree (i. e. 
I am surprised that he should,, etc.) ! puissiez-vous rC avoir ja- 
mais besoin des medians ! may you never have need of the 
rascals (i. e. I wish that you may never, etc.) ! 

F. Imperative. 

§ 599. The Imperative Mode is employed in French ex- 
actly as in English. It will not be necessary, therefore, to 
enter into any detailed representation of the principles which 
regulate its use. 

§ 600. A Compound of the Imperative of many Verbs is 
used to express an injunction that a certain thing should be 
done previously to the happening of another ; e. g. ayez dine 
avant que je revienne, have dined before I return. 

III. TENSE. 

§ 601. The French have but one form of the Present 
Tense Indicative to correspond with the three English forms, 
I write, I do write, I am writing. They cannot say, je suis 
ecrivant ; and je fais ecrire means something very different 
from 1 do write. Tecris is the only expression meaning I 
write. 

§ 602. The general use of the Present Tense Indicative is 
the same in French as in English, i. e. it denotes that some- 
thing is now passing. The cases in which usage respecting it 
differs in the two languages will be pointed out. 

§ 603. In French, as in English, the Present Tense Indica- 
tive* is often employed instead of the Perfect in lively de- 
scription ; e. g. les ennemis escaladent les murs et s'cmparent 
des portes, the enemy scale the walls and take possession of 
the gates, je m'avance pour le punir, et nous commcngons un 
rude combat, I advance to punish him, and we begin a rough 
combat. 

* When the word Coi?i])07ind is not expressly added to the name 
of a Tense, the Simple Tense is intended. 



§ 604—608. verb. 159 

§ 604. In French, as in English, the Present Tense Indica- 
tive is often employed instead of the Future, in such expres- 
sions as, je pars demain, I (shall) go to-morrow, la poste ar- 
rive ce soir, the mail arrives (will arrive) this evening. 

§ 605. When a Verb in French is preceded by the con- 
junction si, in the sense of supposing that, the Present Tense 
Indicative is always used, even in cases in which it would 
seem natural to use the Future Tense ; e. g. sil vient je vous 
dirai, if he shall come I will tell you, firai demain a la cam- 
pagne stil fait (not fera) beau, I shall go into the country to- 
morrow, if it is fair weather, si vous me pretez votre livre, je 
vous preterai le mien, if you will lend me your book I will 
lend you mine.* 

§ 606. When a Verb in French is preceded by the par- 
ticle quand, meaning when, and is followed by a Verb in 
the Present Tense Indicative, it is itself put in the Pres- 
ent Tense, as in English ; e. g. quand il vient il est toujours 
presse, when he comes he is always in a hurry. But, when 
the Verb which follows is in the Future Tense, the first Verb 
must be put in the Future Tense likewise, though in English 
it is still put in the Present ; e. g. quand vous sortirez, vous 
ferez Men de prendre un parapluie, when you go out you will 
do well to take an umbrella, quand je saurai dessiner , je feral 
votre portrait, when I know how to draw, I will take your 
portrait. N. B. So with any conjunction or particle meaning 
when, such as aussitut que, des que, etc. 

§ 607. The greatest difficulty, perhaps, respecting the 
tenses of French Verbs is to determine in what cases the Im- 
perfect and Perfect Tenses of the Indicative respectively are 
to be employed to denote past time. The rules which follow 
will determine this with considerable, if not entire, precision. 

§ 608. I. The Imperfect Tense must be employed when- 

* We may say, indeed, je ne sais s'il viendra, I do not know 
whether he will come or not, je ne sais $'il le pourrait, 1 do not know 
whether he can do it or not, but si here has not the sense of suppo- 
sition. 



160 §§608—613. verb. 

ever in English we can use the Present Participle of the Verb 
with the Imperfect Tense of the auxiliary verb to be, i. e. 
when the Verb denotes a Present with respect to something 
past ; e. g. je plantais des pois hier quand il arriva, I was 
planting peas yesterday when he arrived. 

§ 609. II. The Imperfect Tense must be employed when 
we wish to express frequency, habit, continuance, or constant 
character ; e. g. alors je mangeais beaucoup de sucre, then I 
was in the habit of eating a great deal of sugar, fy allais 
souvent, I used to go there often, Us etaient seditieux et avares, 
they were seditious and avaricious. 

§ 610. III. The Imperfect Tense must be employed when 
the Verb is preceded by the conjunction si, if, and followed 
by another Verb in the Conditional Present ; e. g. si f avals 
plus aVamis je serais heureux, if I had more friends I should 
be happier. 

§ 611. IV. The Perfect Tense must be employed when 
we wish to denote an isolated action entirely past ; e. g. il 
naquit et il mourut, he was born and he died. 

§ 612. V. The Perfect Tense must be employed in speak* 
ing of something begun and finished (wholly comprised) in a 
time which is completely past and definitely specified ; e. g. 
faTiai a la comedie hier, I went to the comedy yesterday, 
nous passdmes la nuit dans ce village et nous partimes le len* 
demain pour Boston, we passed the night in that village and 
on the morrow set out for Boston.* 

§ 613. The Future Tense Indicative is generally used in 
French just as in English : e. g. la philosophic eclairera les 
hommes ; Us cesseront enfin d^ttre tigres, philosophy will en- 



* All actions which occur and arc fiitislicd at the time ichcn the 
scene is laid by the writer or speaker are to be expressed in the Per- 
fect Tense ; those which existed before that time and are supposed to 
continue during it, are to be expressed in the Imperfect Tense. There 
must be a past interval of at least one day to justify the use of the 
Perfect Tense, (Comp. § 618.) 



$$ 613—618. verb. 161 

lighten men ; they will at last cease to be tigers. (But Comp. 
§606.) 

§ 614. In regard to the Tenses of the Subjunctive, the cases 
in which the Subjunctive is used both in English and in French 
present no difficulty. The most important question as to these 
Tenses relates to the use of the Subjunctive by the French 
when the English use the Indicative or Conditional. The fol- 
lowing rules will determine what Tense of the Subjunctive is 
to be employed in French for any particular Tense of the In- 
dicative or Conditional in English. 

§ 615. I. The English Present and Future of the Indica- 
tive are expressed by the Present Subjunctive in French ; 
e. g.je ne crois pas qxCil le fasse expres, I do not believe that 
he does it (or will do it) on purpose. 

§ 616. II. The other Tenses of the Indicative or Condi- 
tional in English are expressed in French by the Imperfect 
Subjunctive ; e. g. quoique je ne crusse pas ce qxCil me disaii, 
though 1 did not believe what he told me,;e ne savais pas que 
vousfussiez amis, I did not know that you were friends. 

§ 617. The use of the Compound Tenses in French corre- 
sponds generally with that of the Compound Tenses in Eng- 
lish. The only very important exception to this statement is 
the Compound of the Present, commonly called the Preterite 
Indefinite. 

§ 618. The Compound of the Present, or the Preterite In- 
definite Tense, is used to denote an action which happened at 
a time past but not specified (as in English), or at a time past 
but connected by the form of expression with the present ; 
e. g. je Vai toujour s dit, I have always said it, j^ai dejeune 
ce matin avec votre scnir, I breakfasted this morning with yovir 
sister, j^ai eu lajievre an commencement du print emps, I had a 
fever at the beginning of the spring, nous avons eu Men (hs 
revolutions pendant ce siccle, we have had many revolutions 
14* 



162 §§618-623. vere. 

during this century, fai vu voire frere il y a quelques jours, 
I saw your brother some days ago.* 

§ 619. The Compound of the Present, or the Preterite In- 
definite, is sometimes used instead of a Future just at hand ; 
e. g. avez-vous bientotfcni 7 shall you soon have done ? Oui, 
fai fini dans le moment, yes, I shall have done in a moment. 

§ 620. The use of the other Compound Tenses, both in the 
Indicative and Subjunctive Modes, is regulated by the same 
principles as those which have been laid down concerning the 
corresponding Simple Tenses. (See §§ 607—617.) 

§ 621. In English the auxiliaries shall and will are some- 
times omitted, so as to make a Tense which is really Future 
appear otherwise ; e. g. when we have done it, we will go 
there. In such cases the Future must always be used in 
French ; e. g. quand nous Vaurons fait, nous y irons. 

IV. NUMBER AND PERSOX. 
§ 622. The general rule is, as in English, that the Verb 
must agree with its nominative in Number and Person ; e. g. 
je parle, 1 speak, ma sceur demeure id, my sister lives here, 
les enfans sont gais, the children are gay. 

§ 623. When there are two or more singular nominatives to 
the same Verb, the Verb, as in English, must be put in the 
Plural Number ; e. g. mon oncle et ma iante sont malades, my 
uncle and aunt are sick, sa douceur, sa politesse, et sa fran- 
chise lui font trouver des amis partout oil il va, his mildness, 
politeness, and frankness cause him to find friends wherever 
he goes. 

* In all these examples but the first and fourth the use of this 
Compound Tense is not allowable in English. In the second, the 
expression this morning connects the occurrences with the present 
day. (Comp. note to § 612.) In the third and fourth, the spring and 
century are not yet finished, and this circumstance connects the oc- 
currences with the present time. In the last, the expression some 
days ago has the same effect. 



§§ 624—627. verb. 163 

§ 624. When there are several singular nominatives followed 
by the word tout, rien, or ce, referring to them all, the Verb 
must be put in the Singular Number, to agree with tout, rien^ 
or ce ; e. g. Hens, dignites, honneurs, tout disparait a la mort, 
riches, dignities, honors, everything vanishes at death, gesteSj 
soupirs, regards, pensees, rien rttchappe a la jalousie, ges- 
tures, sighs, looks, thoughts, nothing escapes jealousy, perfi* 
dies, noirceurs, incendies, massacres, ce n'est la qu'une faible 
image, treacheries, enormities, conflagrations, massacres, all 
this is but a feeble representation, 

§ 625. With a noun of multitude it is sometimes allowable 
in English to put the Verb in the Plural Number, but in 
French it must always be put in the Singular Number ; e. g. 
le public rtaime pas cela, the public do not like that, le peuple 
est las d'etre traite de la sorte, the people are tired of being 
treated in such a manner, la foule faisait un grand bruit, the 
crowd were making a great noise.* 

§ 626. After adverbs of quantity, such as beaucoup, Men, 
peu, taut, etc., followed by a substantive in the Plural, the 
Verb must be put in the Plural ; e. g. beaucoup de personnel 
sont la, many persons are there, Men des philosophes se sont 
trompes, many philosophers have deceived themselves. 

§ 627. When ce is used as nominative to the Verb eire, 
the Verb may be put in the Plural Number if the nominative 
after etre be Plural ; e. g. ce sont les vices qui degradent 
Vhomme, it is the vices that degrade man, ce furent vos ance- 

* Hence on requires a Singular Verb when it is a noun of multitude ; 
e. g. on dit, people say. There is one important exception to the rule 
laid down above, and that is, that when the noun of multitude is fol- 
lowed by another substantive in the Plural, to which the noun of 
multitude relates, the Verb must be in the Plural ; e.g.un petit nom- 
bre (Vamis lui resterent, a small number of friends remained to him, 
laplupart des dames furent malheureuses, the greater part of the ladies 
were unhappy. (Cornp. § 331.) La plvpart by itself requires the 
Verb to be in the Plural ; e. g. la plupart sont d'avis, the greater part 
are of opinion. 



164 §§627—631. verb. 

tres qui, it was your ancestors who, sonUce les Anglais qui ont 
fait cela, is it the English who have done this ? * 

§ 628. The Pronominal expression, Vun et Vautre, used a3 
a separate nominative, or, like an adjective, agreeing with a 
nominative singular, requires that the Verb should be in the 
Plural number, or, at least, this is considered the best con- 
struction ; e. g. Vun et V autre sont Ions, both are good, Vun 
et Vautre consul suivirent son etendard, both consuls followed 
his standard. 

§ 629. The Pronominal expression, ni Vun ni Vautre, used 
as a separate nominative, or, like an adjective, agreeing with 
a nominative singular, requires that the Verb should be in the 
Singular Number, whenever what is expressed can apply to 
only one of the two subjects ; otherwise it is allowable to put 
the Verb either in the Singular or Plural, though the former 
is preferable : e. g. ni Vun ni Vautre rtest mon phre, neither is 
my father, ni Vun ni Vautre consul ne suivit son Uendard, 
neither consul followed his standard, niVun ni Vautre w' a fait 
son devoir (or rtont fait leur devoir), neither has done his 
duty. 

§ 630. Two or more Singular nominatives connected by 
the conjunction ou require that the Verb should be in the Sin- 
gular ; e. g. le seigle ou Vorge qui est dans le champ, the rye 
or barley which is in the field. But if either of the nomina- 
tives thus connected be Plural, the Verb must be in the Plural 
likewise ; e. g. le maitre ou ses gens viendront demain, the 
master or his people will come to-morrow. 

§ 631. When two or more Singular nominatives are pre- 
ceded and connected by the conjunction ni, and what is ex- 
pressed by the Verb may apply to both subjects at once, the 
Verb must be put, not in the Singular, as in English, but in 
the Plural ; e. g. ni le seigle ni Vorge ne se vendent cher, nei- 
ther the rye nor the barley sells dear. But, in case the thing 



* In English, it will be noticed, the Verb is put in the Singular 
in such cases. 



§§631—636. verb. 165 

expressed can apply only to one of the subjects at a time, the 
Verb must be put in the Singular ; e. g. ni Richard ni Guil- 
laume rfest mon fr&re, neither Richard nor William is my 
brother. 

§ 632. When there are several nominatives preceded by 
non seulement or some equivalent expression, and another 
nominative in the Singular follows preceded by mais, the 
Verb must be put in the Singular ; e. g. non-seulement toutes 
ses richesses et tous ses honneurs, mats ioute sa vertu s'eva- 
nouit, not only all his riches and all his honors, but all his vir- 
tue vanishes. 

§ 633. When a Verb in French has two or more nomina- 
tives of different Persons, it is put in the Plural Number and 
in the Person corresponding with that nominative which ranks 
foremost in this respect, the first Person taki ng precedence of the 
second and third, and the second of the third ; e. g. vous et 
mot, nous sommes pauvres, you and I are poor, vous et voire 
ami, vous viendrez avec moi, you and your friend will come 
with me. (Comp. § 481.) 

§ 634. When a Verb has the relative pronoun qui for its 
subject, it is put in the same Number and Person as the sub- 
stantive or pronoun to which it relates ; e. g. est-ce moi qui 
ai dit cette nouvelle ? is it I who have told this news ? est~ce 
nous qui Vavons voulu ? is it we who desired it ? ceux qui 
aiment sincerement la vertu sont heureux, those who sincerely 
love virtue are happy, 

POSITION, 

§ 635. The general rule in French, as in English, is that 
the Verb stands after the subject and before the object ; e. g. 
je vois Vhomme, I see the man, nous ttudions la langue Fran* 
gaise, we are studying the French language. (Comp. §§ 284, 
457. 

§ 636. In directly interrogative sentences the Verb (or the 
auxiliary, if the Verb be in a compound tense,) comes before. 



166 §§ 636—640. verb. 

the subject, and after the object when there is a direct object ; 
e. g. que dit-on ? what do they say ? quel objet voyez-vous ? 
what object do you see ? quel objet avez-vous vu ? what object 
have you seen ? viendra-Uelle ? will she come ? (Comp. 
§§ 287, 290, 458, 461.) Some other exceptions to the rule 
in § 635 may be seen in §§ 285 seq., and 460 seq. 

Additional Peculiarities* 

§ 637. The English present participle governed by a 
preposition which cannot be rendered in French by en (comp. 
§ 567,) is always rendered by the infinitive mode ; e. g. lasse 
de vivre, tired of living, las de travailler, weary of working. 

§ 638. The French avoid the use of the passive voice as 
much as possible. For this purpose a reflexive form is very 
often given to the Verb ; e. g. le vin se vend trois chelins la 
bouteille, the wine is sold at three shillings a bottle, il se trouve 
des gens que Hen ne peut contenter, there are people whom 
nothing can content, cela ne peut sefaire, that cannot be dene. 
For this purpose, too, some other turn is often given to a 
clause ; e. g. for the English, the laics must be obeyed, the 
French would say, on doit obeir aux lois, or, ilfaut obeir aux 
lois, or, obeissons aux lois f or, nous devons obeir aux his. 

§ 639. When the second person singular imperative of a 
Verb of the first conjugation comes before en or y belonging 
directly to the Verb, the letter s is always added to the form 
of the Verb ; e. g. donnes-en a tonfrere, give some of it to thy 
brother, portes-y tes livres, carry thy books thither, vas-y, go 
thither. 

§ 640. The French often make use of the simple present 
of the Verb etre where we should perhaps expect to find the 
compound present ; e. g. il y a un mois que le vent est (not 
a Hi) a Vest, the wind has been east for a month, je suis (not 
fai ete) depuis dix jours en route, I have been on my journey 



§§ 640—643. 167 

for ten days, il y a plus (Pun an que je suis (not fai eU) ma- 
lade, I have been sick for more than a year.* 

§ 641. The English auxiliary words do, did, will, shall, 
would, should, can, could, may, might, are not expressed by 
any separate word in French ; e. g. 1 did love is expressed in 
French by faimais or faimai, 1 will love, by f aimer ai, etc. 
(Comp. § 601.) But sometimes these same words are not mere 
auxiliaries, and then they must be separately expressed in 
French ; e. g. nous ne devrions jamais nous ecarter du sentier 
de la vertu, we should never swerve from the path of virtue. 
In this example should is not a mere sign of a particular tense, 
but denotes duty, obligation. 

§ 642. The preposition entre is sometimes used with pro- 
nominal or reflexive Verbs (see §§ 529 and 555), being placed 
between the personal pronoun and the Verb so as to form 
part of the Verb ; e. g. s'entre-tuer, to kill one another. This 
preposition makes the Verb refer to more than one person ; 
e. g. Us s 'entre- tuent, they kill one another. The Verb is 
conjugated as usual, excepting that entre is always prefixed to 
the Verb by means of a hyphen.f In the compound tenses 
entre is prefixed to the participle ; e. g. Us se sont entre-que- 
relies, they have quarrelled with one another. 

§ 643. There are four neuter Verbs which become reflected 
by the addition of the particle en between the personal pro- 
noun and the Verb, viz. s^en aller, to go away, s^en courir, to 
run away, s'en fuir, to flee away, s^en retourner, to return. 
The mode of conjugating these Verbs may be seen from the 

* It may be observed that in all such cases there is an idea of con- 
tinuance to the present time. When this idea is not involved, the 
simple present is not used ; e. g. il y a dix ans qu'il a voyage, it is six 
years since he has travelled. 

t In case the Verb begins with a vowel, the final e of entre is 
elided and the apostrophe is used, which (§ 201) takes the place of the 
hyphen ; e.g. s'entr aimer, to love one another, s'entr 1 aider, to help 
one another. 



168 



§$ 643—647. verb. 






example of s'en aller among the irregular Verbs. (See Ap- 
pendix M, Verb aller.) 

§ 644. Forms of the Verb ttre are sometimes used instead 
of forms of the Verb aller. Je fus is used for fallai ; fai 
He for je suis alU ; favais til for fetais alU ; and faurais 
He for je serais alU ; e. g. je fus hier a V opera, I went yes- 
terday to the opera, j^aurais ete vous voir, I should have gone 
to see you. 

§ 645. The Impersonal Verb Jest, in its various tenses, is 
used (1.) before a substantive, with an article or an adjective, 
(2.) before an adjective with an adverb or its equivalent, (3.) 
before a pronoun, (4.) before a Verb in the infinitive mode, 
and (5.) before an adverb alone ; e. g. (1.) Jest un mede'cin, 
he is a physician, Jetait le capitaine, it was the captain, Jest 
une jolie femme, she is a pretty woman, Jetait tine femme char- 
mante, she was a charming woman, (2.) ce serait trop im- 
prudent, that would be too imprudent, Jest fait a merveille, 
it is done remarkably well, (3.) Jest moi, it is I, Jest elle qui 
me Va dit, it was she who told me of it, Jest nous qui sommes 
les aggresseurs, it is we who are the aggressors, (4.) ce qui 
me plait, Jest de vous voir content, what pleases me is to see 
you contented, Jest vouloir se perdre que d^attaquer ces gens- 
la, to attack those fellows, is to wish to destroy one's self, 
(5.) Jest assez, it is enough, Jest demain qu'il doit venir, it 
is to-morrow that he is to come. 

§ 646. The impersonal Verb il est is commonly used (1.) 
before a substantive without an article, and (2.) before an ad- 
jective without a substantive ; e.g. (1.) il est terns de diner, 
it is time to dine, (2.) il estfdcheux oVUre mala.de, it is vexa- 
tious to be sick.* 

§ 647. When a form of the impersonal verb Jest is fol- 
lowed by a substantive or pronoun in the third person plural, 



* Yet the French say, familiarly, c'cst vrai, it is true, c'est hon, it is 
good, etc,, when these expressions stand alone, by way of answer or 
brief remark. 



§§647—651. verb. 169 

the Verb may be either singular or plural, the pronoun ce be- 
ing singular at any rate (Comp. § 627) ; but if the expression 
be interrogative the Verb must be in the singular. E. g. 
Jest or ce sont les hups qui out tue les moutons 7 it is the 
wolves who have killed the sheep, c'esl eux or ce sont eux qui 
ont gagne la victoire, it is they who have gained the victory, 
est-ce les hups qui ont tui les moutons ? is it the wolves who 
have killed the sheep ? 

§ 648. The Impersonal Verb il est is commonly used in 
speaking of the hours of the day ; e. g. il est une heure, it is 
one o'clock, il est dix heures, it is ten o'clock. Sometimes, 
however, in answering a question concerning the hour of the 
day, c'est is employed, but perhaps not very properly. 

§ 649. The Impersonal Verb il est is sometimes employed 
with a plural substantive so as to mean there are ; e. g. il est 
des gens qui ne sont jamais contens, there are people who are 
never contented, il est des figures dVwmmes et de femmes pour 
qui la toilette ne peut rien, there are figures of men and 
women for which the toilet can do nothing. 11 est, in such 
cases, corresponds with the Impersonal Verb il y a, which 
might be used instead. (Comp. § 650.) 

§ 650. The Impersonal Verb il y a is never used except in 
the third person singular of its various tenses, and is followed 
either by a singular or a plural substantive ; e. g. il y a un 
homme, there is a man, il y avait des femmes, there were 
women, il y aura trop de poivre dans ce ragout, there will be 
too much pepper in this ragout, il y a de bonnes gens dans 
tous les pays, there are good people in all countries. 

§ 651. In affirmations respecting time, number, measure, 
distance, we commonly use the Impersonal Verb it is ; the 
French, in such cases, always use the Impersonal Verb ily a, 
when the time mentioned is past. E. g. il y a quatre mots 
queje suis id, it is four months since I came here, ily a vingt 
ans qu*il est mort } it is twenty years since he died, il y a vingt 

15 



170 § 651—656. verb. 

milles de Boston a Andover, it is twenty miles from Boston to 
Andover. (Comp. § 640.) 

§ 652. Questions in English beginning with how far, how 
long, how much, how many, etc., and followed by is it, is 
there, are there, etc., are rendered into French by the use of 
the adverb combien with the Impersonal Verb il yarn its in- 
terrogative form, y a-t-il (see App. O, I.) ; e. g. combien y a~t-il 
dHci a Boston ? how far is it from here to Boston ? combien 
de sable y a-t-il dans la charrette ? how much sand is there 
in the cart ? combien de villes y a-t-il en France ? how many 
cities are there in France ? combien y a-t-il que vous avez 
commence ? how long is it since you began ? 

§ 653. The Impersonal Verb il fait, in its various tenses, 
is used in a peculiar manner with an adjective or substantive, 
to denote the state of the weather, the roads, etc. ; e. g. ilfait 
froid, it is cold, ilfaisait chaud, it was hot, il fera beau de- 
main, it will be fair to-morrow, il a fait crotte aujourdViui, it 
has been muddy to-day, ilfait cher vivre a Londres, it is dear 
living at London, ilferait bon en Italie, si le gouvernement y 
etait moins despotique, things would be well in Italy, if the 
government there was less despotic. 

§ 654. The Impersonal Verb il faut, in its various tenses, 
is often used before another Verb in the subjunctive ; e. g. il 
faut que faille a Londres, it is necessary that I should (or 
I must) go to London, ilfaut qiCils viennent, they must come, 
il faudra que vous soyez de retour a cinq heures, it will be 
necessary that you should be on your return at five o'clock. 

§ 655. The Impersonal Verb il faut is often used before 
another Verb in the infinitive, and in such cases il faut is 
sometimes preceded by a personal pronoun ; e. g. il faut oi- 
ler a Londres, it is necessary to go to London, il faut venir, 
it is necessary to come, il vous faut ttre de retour a cinq 
heures, it is necessary for you to be on your return at five 
o'clock. 

§ 656. The Impersonal Verb ilfaut is often used before a 
substantive, and in such cases il faut is sometimes preceded 



§ 656—660. verb. 171 

by a personal pronoun ; e. g. ilfaut de V argent, money must 
be had, il luifaut du pain, he wants bread, il nous faut une 
maison, we must have a house, il leur faudra une chaise, 
they will want a chaise, il faut des hommes, men are wanted. 

§ 657. The Impersonal Verb il faut is sometimes used at 
the end of a clause ; e. g. vous faites cela comme il faut, 
you do that as it should be done, des gens comme ilfaut, peo- 
ple such as they should be (i. e. respectable people), cela tfest 
pas comme il faut, that is not as it should be, il fait ce qu'il 
faut, he does what he should, vous lisez plus quHl ne jaut, 
you read more than is necessary. 

§ 658. When a tense of the Impersonal Verb il faut pre- 
cedes another Verb in the subjunctive mode (according to 
§ 654), the present tense of the subjunctive must be employed 
Mil faut be in the present or future tense indicative, and the 
perfect tense subjunctive must be employed if il faut be in 
the imperfect or perfect tense indicative or the conditional 
present ; e. g. ilfaut que vous buviez, you must drink, il fau- 
dra qu*elle danse, she will have to dance, ilfallait or ilfallut 
que je parlasse, it was necessary that I should speak, il fau- 
drait qu'ils fissent leur devoir, it would be necessary that they 
should do their duty. 

§ 659. The first person singular of the present subjunctive 
of the Verb avoir, to know, is, by a strange anomaly, em- 
ployed instead of the corresponding form of the indicative, 
whenever the form of expression is negative ; e. g. je n'en 
sache rien, I know nothing about it, je ne sache personne, I 
know nobody.* 

§ 660. The Verb devoir is often used in French to express 
the idea of the English words ought, should (in the sense of 
ought), must (when no command is expressed), and am to ; 
e. g. vous devez obeir a votre maitre, you ought to [or you 

* The expression must be negative and the Verb must be in the 
first person to justify the present subjunctive of saroir instead of the 
indicative ; e. g. we must say je sais cela, I know that, il nc salt pas 
son metier, he does not know his trade. 



172 §§ 660—666, verb. 

should) obey your master, vous devez avoir grand f aim, you 
must be very hungry, nous devons y alter, we are going there. 

§ 661. When in English we use ought to have or should 
have, the French use phraseology corresponding with should 
have ought ; e. g. nous aurions du y alter, we ought to have 
gone thither. 

§ 662. The Verb pouvoir is often used in French to ex- 
press the English may and might, as well as can and could ; 
e. g. vous pouvez venir la semaine prochaine, you may come 
the next week ; faurais pu etre trompe, I might have been 
deceived, je puis le faire, I can do it, nous ne pouvions venir 
Mer, we could not come yesterday, je puis avoir eti trompe', I 
may have been deceived.* 

§ 663. The simple conditional tense of the Verb savoir is, 
by a strange anomaly, often used instead of the present of the 
Verb pouvoir, when the expression is negative, but not other- 
wise ; e. g. je ne saurais dire la moindre chose, I cannot say 
the least thing. 

§ 664. The Verb vouloir is to be used with the infinitive 
of a Verb, instead of a future tense of the same Verb, when- 
ever we intend to express emphatically a wish or determina- 
tion ; e. g. il tuera, he will kill, il veut tuer, he will kill, i. e. 
means to kill , je le ferai, I will do it, je veux le faire, I will 
do it. 

§ 665. The Verb vouloir is used for our Verbs, want, de- 
sire, will have, etc. ; e. g. que voulez-vous ? what do you want ? 
voulez-vous de la viande ? will you have some meat ? je vcuv 
dupain, sHl vous plait, I should like some bread, if you please. 

§ 666. The two words void and voila are sometimes used 
in a very peculiar manner. They are compounded of the 
imperative of the Verb voir, to see, and the adverbs ci and la. 



* To use the subjunctive forms of expression j ait e'td trompe , 
feusse iti trompe 1 , for / may have been deceived, I might have been de- 
ceived, would be altogether improper. 



§§ 666—669. verb. 173 

The peculiar use of these compound words may be seen 
pretty fully from the following examples : void le livre dont 
on a parU, here is the book of which mention has been made, 
voila Vhomme que vous demandez, there is the man whom you 
are asking for, le void qui travaille, here he is working, la 
voila qui chante, there she is singing, void venir le printemps^ 
see, spring approaches, void qui est beau, this is fine, voila 
done qui va Men, there, then, that goes well, nous void quatre, 
here are we four, me voila sans abri, there was I without 
shelter, Vhomme que void, this man here, Monsieur que voila, 
that gentleman there. 

§ 667. When in English a Verb following is it is in a fu- 
ture tense, is it must be rendered into French by the future 
tense of etre ; and when the following Verb is in a past tense, 
etre must be in a past tense likewise ; e. g. sera-ce elles qui 
viendront ? is it they who will come ? etaienUce eux qui allai- 
ent ? is it they who went ? 

§ 668. In English the auxiliary. forms, have, had, shall, will, 
should, would, could, may, can, might, are often used alone 
in answering a question, the rest of the Verb being under- 
stood : e. g. have you done that ? I have ; shall you read this 
pamphlet 1 1 shall; etc. In French they cannot be so used, but 
the expression must be complete : e. g. avez-vous fait cela ? 
je Vai fait, have you done that ? I have done it ; vous propo- 
sez vous de lire ceite brochure ? oui, je le lirai, shall you 
read this pamphlet ? yes, I shall read it. 

§ 669. A somewhat similar mode of expression, not allow- 
able in French, frequently occurs, though inelegantly, in Eng- 
lish ; e. g. I intend to, I hope to, I expect to, I am to, etc. 
In French, the sentence must be written out in full ; e. g. je 
n'ai j^ as tcrit ^ a lettre, mais je me propose de la faire, I 
have not written the letter, but I intend to, il ne Va pas vu, 
mais il esplre de le voir bientot, he has not seen him, but he 
hopes to soon, a-t-elle parti 7 non, mais elle doit partir de* 
main, has she set out ? No, but she is to to-morrow. 
15* 



174 §§670—673. particles. 

§ 670. When in an interrogation the personal pronoun je 
stands immediately after any Verb which ends with e mute, 
the e mute receives an acute accent, and is pronounced ac- 
cordingly ; e. g. aim&'je 7 do I love ? puisse-je ? may I ? 

§ 671. The four following Verbs need to be carefully dis- 
tinguished from each other in point of sense : mener, signi- 
fying to lead from the place where one is, e. g. menez cet en- 
fant a Vecole, lead this child to school ; amener, signifying to 
bring to the place where one is, e. g. amenez-moi cet enfant, 
bring that child to me ; emmener, signifying to carry away, 
e. g. il emmena deux regimens avec lui, he carried away two 
regiments with him ; and remener, signifying to carry back, 
e. g. remenez cet enfant a son pere, carry back that child to 
his father. N. B. All these Verbs indicate life and motion 
in their objects, which are led, not borne. 

§ 672. The four following Verbs, likewise, need to be 
carefully distinguished in point of sense : porter, signifying to 
carry from the place where one is, e. g. portez ces livres dans 
ma chambre, carry these books into my room ; apporter, sig- 
nifying to bring towards the place where one is, e. g. appor- 
tez-moi du fruit, bring me some fruit ; emporter, signifying to 
carry away, e. g. emportez cette table, carry away this table ; 
and reporter, signifying to carry back, e. g. reportez ces livres 
dans ma chambre, carry these books back into my room. 



CHAP. VI. 

PARTICLES. 

General Statement. 
§ 673. The Conjunction and Interjection are altogether in- 
variable. The Preposition is never varied, save in connexion 
with the Definite Article, as represented in §§ 210, 211. 
The Adverb, likewise, is never varied, save, in a very few in- 
stances, by comparison. (See § 675.) 



§§674—676. particles. 175 

§ 674. Adverbs are subject to comparison in French if 
their sense will allow of different degrees. The regular com- 
parison of Adverbs is effected in the same way as that of 
adjectives (see § 351) ; e. g. profondement, profoundly, com- 
par. plus profondement, superl. le plus profondement 

§ 675. There are four French Adverbs which are subject to 
irregular comparison : viz. beaucoup, much, compar. plus, 
superl. le plus ; lien, well, compar. mieux, superl. le milux ; 
mal, ill,* compar. pis, superl. lepis ; peu, little, compar. moins, 
superl. le moins. 

§ 676. Very many French Adverbs are formed from ad- 
jectives, by the following Rules : 

I. When the adjective ends with a vowel in the masculine 
gender, the Adverb is formed by merely adding merit to the 
masculine : e. g. juste, just, justement, justly ; aise 1 , easy, 
aisement, easily ; hardi, bold, hardiment, boldly ; absolu, ab- 
solute, absolument, absolutely. t 

II. When the adjective ends with a consonant in the mas- 
culine (save when it ends with ant or ent, for which case see 
the next rule), the Adverb is formed by adding ment to the 

feminine; e. g. vif, lively, fern, vive, Adv. vivement, livelily; 
cruel, cruel, fern, cruelle, Adv. cruellement, cruelly .$ 

* This Adverb may likewise be compared regularly : plus mat, le 
plus mal. 

t The following cases deviate from this rule : aveugle, blind, 
avcuglement, blindly ; commode, convenient, commo dement, conveni- 
ently : conforme, conformable, conformement, conformably ; e'norme, 
enormous, 6normement, enormously; impuni, unpunished, impuni- 
ment. with impunity ; Incommode, inconvenient, incom mo dement, in- 
conveniently ; oplnia.tre, obstinate, opini&tre'ment, obstinately ; trai- 
tre, treacherous, traitrcusernent, treacherously. The Adverbs, belle- 
ment, softly, foflcment, foolishly, mollement, effeminately, and nou- 
vcllcmcnt, newly, are considered as derived from the forms bel.fol, mol, 
and nourcl, and not from bcau.fou, mou. and nouveau; and so they come 
under Rule II. above, and not under Rule I. 

I The following cases deviate from this Rule : commun, common, 
commune 1 ment, commonly ; confus, confused, confuse 1 ment, confusedly ; 



176 §§ 676—679. particles. 

III. When the adjective ends with ant or ent, the Adverb 
is formed by changing the nt into mment ; e. g. constant, con- 
stant, constamment, constantly ; eloquent, eloquent, eloquent- 
ment, eloquently.* 

POSITION. 

^ 677. When an Adverb qualifies an adjective, the Adverb 
is always put first ; e. g. je suis assez riche, I am rich enough ; 
il est fort pauvre, he is very poor. 

§ 678. When an Adverb qualifies a verb, and the verb is 
in a simple tense, the verb is almost always put first ; e. g. 
nous lisons beaucoup, we read much, il reviendra bientot, he 
will return soon. An Adverb is sometimes, though rarely, 
placed before a verb in the infinitive ; e. g. pour bienfaire, in 
order to do well, assez parler, to speak enough. N. B. An 
Adverb can never stand between the nominative and the verb ; 
e. g. fecris souvent, never je souvent e'cris. 

§ 679. When an Adverb qualifies a verb, and the verb is in 
a compound tense, the Adverb is usually put between the aux- 
iliary and the participle ; e. g. il est profondement verse dans 
cette science, he is profoundly versed in this science, il a eU 
vivement pique, he was strongly piqued.f Yet the Adverb 

dlffus, diffuse, diffuse merit, diffusely } cxpres, express, expr esse" ment, 
expressly ; gentil, pretty, gentiment, prettily ; importun, importunate, 
importunement, importunately ; obscur, obscure, obscurement, ob- 
scurely ; precis, precise, precisdment, precisely ; profondj profound, 
profondement, profoundly. 

* The two following cases deviate from this Rule and follow the 
II. : lent, slow, lentement, slowly ; prdsent, present, presentement, 
presently. The following Adverbs, notwithstanding their form, are 
not derived in any way from adjectives : comment, how, inccssam- 
ment, presently, notamment, especially, nuitamment, by night, pro- 
fusement, lavishly, sciemment, knowingly. 

t Considering the participle of the compound tense as an adjec- 
tive, to which it bears much resemblance, this rule would be the same 
as that in § 677. In almost all cases when the Adverb follows the 



^ 679—683. particles. 177 

sometimes follows the participle of a compound tense ; e. g. 
il a appuye fortement son opinion, he forcibly supported his 
opinion, il a dit cela mechamment, he said that mischievously. 

§ 680. When an Adverb qualifies a whole sentence or 
clause, rather than a particular word, its position does not fol- 
low any general rule, save that it is put where it will best con- 
vey the exact sense intended. If it be put at the beginning of 
a clause, peculiar emphasis is given to the idea which it con- 
veys ; e. g. aujouroVhui il fait beau, to-day it is fine weather, 
il fait beau aujourd hui, it is fine weather to-day, veritable- 
mentje vous dois cette somme, it is true I owe you that sum. 

§ 681. The Adverbs, comment, combien, d'oii, ou, par oil, 
pourquoi, quand, always precede the verb, whether a ques- 
tion is asked or not ; e. g. pourquoi riez-vous ? why do you 
laugh ? comment se porte-t-il 7 how is he ? il ne sait ou il va, 
he knows not where he is going. 

§ 682. When the Adverbs, souvent, toujours, and those of 
comparison and quantity, are used in connection with other 
Adverbs, the former always take precedence ; e. g. il Va 
souvent murement examine, he has often attentively examined 
it, il souffre toujours constamment, he always suffers with 
firmness, il Va ecrit bien sagement, he has written it with 
much discretion, il a parle si eloquemment, he has spoken so 
eloquently. Souvent itself is preceded by an adverb of com- 
parison or quantity ; e. g. si souvent, so often, assez souvent, 
often enough. 

§ 683. All that it is necessary to say as to the position of 
the other Particles is, that the practice of the French in this 
respect corresponds with our own. 

participle it may, probably, be perceived that it qualifies the whole 
sentence rather than the verb. (See § 680) 



178 §§ 684—690. particles. 



Additional Peculiarities. 



§ 684. There are some adjectives which are used at times 
as Adverbs ; e. g. il chante faux, he sings out of time, elle 
chante juste, she sings correctly, Us ne voient pas clair, they 
do not see clear, cettejleur sent bon, this flower smells well. 

§ 685. The practice of the French in regard to Negative 
Adverbs is stated clearly and particularly in Appendix O, II. 

§ 686. As to the use of the Prepositions a, de, and pour, 
before the infinitive mode, some general principles, which 
may be of advantage, will be presented here, and for further 
information the student is referred to Appendix P. 

§ 687. I. The Preposition a is generally employed be- 
fore an infinitive in the following cases : (1.) To convey the 
idea of occupation, use, or inclination, e. g.^'e in* amuse a lire y 
I amuse myself with reading, cela ni'aide a voir, that helps 
me to live, faime a icrire, I love to write ; (2.) When the 
infinitive has a passive meaning, which might be rendered 
passively in English, e. g. cetie guerre est difficile a soutenir, 
this war is difficult to sustain (to be sustained), des fruits bons 
a cueillir, fruits good to pluck (to be plucked). 

§ 688. II. The Preposition de is generally employed be- 
fore an infinitive when the infinitive may be rendered in Eng- 
lish by the present participle with of or from; e. g. feus 
bientot une autre occasion d 'employer mon credit, I had soon 
another occasion of employing my credit, vous ??i*empechez de 
travailler, you prevent me from working. 

§ 689. III. The Preposition pour is employed before an 
infinitive to denote distinctly the object or end of an action or 
a condition ; e. g. il a fait cela pour gagner son amitie, he 
did that to gain his friendship, fai dit cela pour rire, I said 
that in jest, c'est trop dur pour rotir, it is too hard to roast. 

§ 690. IV. The infinitive is often used without any 
Preposition before it ; e. g. venez me voir, come to see me, 



§§ 690—696. particles. 179 

mourir n'est rien quand on a bien v6cu, to die is nothing 
when one has lived well, moil revoir cet homme, I see that 
man ! 

§ 691. The Prepositions a, de, and en, are to be repeated 
before every substantive, pronoun, participle, or infinitive 
which they may govern ; e. g. elle a de VhonntteU, de la dou- 
ceur, et de Vesprit, she has politeness, sweetness, and ability, 
tout ce que je dots a VAuteur de mon etre, au prochain, a moi* 
mime, all that I owe to the Author of my being, to my neigh- 
bor, to myself, en Asie, en Europe, en Afrique, in Asia, in 
Europe, in Africa. 

§ 692. The other Prepositions are repeated when the sub- 
stantives which they govern are contrasted or of very distinct 
signification, but may be used only once when the substan- 
tives are quite or nearly synonymous ; e. g. pour le lien et 
pour le mal de mon maitre, to the advantage and disadvantage 
of my master, par les ruses et les artifices de mes ennemis, by 
the tricks and artifices of my enemies, par les ruses et par les 
armes, by cunning and by arms. 

§ 693. When a Preposition is used before the expression 
Vun et V autre, it must be used before both Vun and V autre ; 
e. g. fai repondu a Vun et a V autre f I have replied to both, 
il se sert egalement de Vune et de V autre main, he makes use 
of both hands alike. 

§ 694. The Preposition a is used before chacun in all such 
eases as the following, though in English it is omitted : Dieu 
nous rendra a chacun selon nos ceuvres, God will render to us 
each according to his works. 

§ 695. The Preposition de is often used after a compara- 
tive and before a substantive of dimension or quantity, to ex- 
press the English Preposition by; e. g. vous etes plus haut que 
moi de deux pouces, you are taller than I by two inches. 

§ 696. The Preposition de is often used after a superlative 
to express the English preposition in ; e. g. le plus grand co- 



180 §§ 696—704. particles. 

quin du royaume, the greatest rogue in the kingdom, la plus 
belle femme de Londres, the most beautiful woman in London. 

§ 697. When que, quoi, or rien occur before an adjective 
in such expressions as the following, the Preposition de is re- 
quired before the adjective, though no Preposition is used in 
English : Que dit on de nouveau ? what news is there ? quoi 
de plus insiruclif? what more instructive? il n'a rien de 
grand que la naissance, he has nothing great but birth, y a-t-il 
rien de si beau, is there anything so beautiful ? 

§ 698. The Preposition de is used after au travers, and not 
after a travers ; e. g. au Iravers des ennemis, a trovers les en- 
nemis, through the enemy. 

§ 699. The Preposition de is used in a very singular man- 
ner in such sentences as the following : voyons qui Vemportera, 
de vous, de lui, ou de moi, let us see which of us will excel, 
you, he, or I. 

§ 700. The Preposition dans is generally used before a 
substantive when an article occurs before it, and en when no 
article occurs (comp. § 237) ; e. g. en guerre, in war, dans 
la guerre, in the war. 

§ 701. The Preposition en is used (never dans) before the 
present participle. (Comp. § 567.) 

§ 701, The Preposition en is often used to signify like ; 
e. g. ilparle en ami, he talks like a friend, il agit en prince, 
he acts like a prince, vivre en bon Chretien, to live like a good 
Christian. 

§ 703. The French never use the Preposition par before 
Dieu ; e. g. les medians seront punis de Dieu, the wicked will 
be punished by God. 

§ 704. Sometimes, though not very often, the Preposition 
durant or pendant, during, is omitted ; e: g. que ferez-vous 
cette hiver, what shall you do this winter ? A more striking 
instance is afforded by a line of Boileau's 8th Satire : 

" Joint, l'hiver, des biens conquis durant rete." 



§§ 705—710. PARTICLES. 181 

§ 705. The Conjunction et is used more frequently in 
French than and in English. We may say in English, he is 
an amiable, well-behaved man ; but we must insert the con- 
junction in French : tfest un homme aimable et poli. 

§ 706. The Conjunction que is employed to denote than or 
as in a comparison ; e. g. VAsie est plus grand que V Europe, 
Asia is larger than Europe, elle est aussi belle que sa sceur, 
she is as beautiful as her sister. 

§ 707. The Conjunction que is often used to convey the 
sense of comme, parceque, puisque, quand, quoique, si, etc., 
before the second clause of such sentences as the following : 
si Von aimait son pays, et qvi'on en desirdt sincere-merit la 
gloire, if we loved our country and sincerely desired its glory. 

§ 708. The Conjunction que is very frequently used in a very 
peculiar manner in such exclamatory sentences as, le bon gar- 
con que Henri ! what a fine boy Henry is ! le beau pays que 
Vltalie ! what a fine country Italy is ! 

§ 709. Other peculiar modes of employing que may be 
seen in the following examples : on ne parle que de la vie- 
toire, they talk only of victory, cela ne finira pas qu'il ne 
vienne, there will be no end to it unless he comes, attendez 
qu'il vienne, wait till he comes, que ne se corrige-t-il ? why 
does he not reform ? mediant qu'il est, wicked as he is, que 
Dieu est grand ! how great is God ! e'est se tromper que de 
croire cela, to believe that is to deceive one's self, quelques 
pr ogres que de nouvelles observations puis sent desormais faire, 
whatever advances new observations may hereafter make. 

§ 710. The Conjunction que following the pronoun qui 
gives it the sense of whoever; e. g. qui que ce soit qui ait 
fait cela, whoever (it be that) has done that : following the 
pronoun quoi, it gives to it the sense of whatever ; e. g. quoi 
que vous disiez, whatever you may say : following the pro- 
noun quel, it gives to it the sense of whoever or whatever ; 
e. g. quel qu'il soit, whoever he may be : following lequel, it 
gives to it the sense of whosoever, whichever ; e. g. lequel des 

16 



182 



§§ 710 — 712. PARTICLES. 



trois que vous choisissiez, whichever of the three you choose : 
following quelque with a substantive, it gives to it the sense of 
whatever ; e. g. quelques efforts que vous fassiez, whatever 
attempts you may make. 

§ 711. The Conjunction que can never be omitted in French, 
as it often is in English ; e. g. je crois que vous avez raison, I 
think you are right, on dit que nous aurons lientot le paix, they 
say we shall soon have peace. 

§ 712. The Interjection O sometimes appears with the 
circumflex accent and sometimes without it. It is used with- 
out the accent in a direct apostrophe to God or to any person ; 
e. g. O mon Dieu ! O my God ! O monfils ! O my son ! In 
all other cases it has the accent ; e. g. O temps ! O mceurs ! 
O times ! O manners ! O sijepouvais ! O, if I could ! O le 
plaisant homme ! O the funny man ! 



APPENDIX. 



A. (§ 37. note.) 



WORDS IN WHICH U 9 PRECEDED BY g Or £, IS PRONOUNCED AS 
PART OF A DIPHTHONG. 



Aiguade, (f.) fresh water. 
Aiguille, (f.) needle (and its 

derivatives). 
Aiguillon, (m.) goad (and its 

derivatives). 
Aiguiser, to sharpen (and its 

derivatives). 
Aqua dor, (m.) waterman. 
Aquarelle, (f.) aquatinta. 
Aquatile, (f.) aquatic. 
Aquatique, aquatic. 
Arguer, to reprove, wire-draw. 
Colliquatif, dissolvent. 
Colliquation, (f.) dissolution. 
D' Aiguillon, (m.) D' Aiguillon. 
'Equateur, (m.) equator. 
'Equatif, equational. 
'Equation, (f.) equation. 
'Equestre, equestrian. 
'Equiangle, equiangular. 
'Equidistant, equidistant. 
'Equilateral, equilateral. 



'Equilatere 9 equilateral. 
'Equimultiple, equimultiple. 
'Equitation, (f.) equitation. 
Guadaloupe, Guadaloupe. 
Guadalquivir, Guadalquivir. 
Guastalla, Guastalla. 
Guatimala, Guatimala. 
Guide, (m.) Guido. 
Guise, (m.) Guise. 
Guisard, Guisard. 
Lingual, lingual. 
Liquation, liquation. 
Liquefaction, liquefaction. 
Loquacite, (f.) loquacity. 
Paraguante, (f.) present. 
Quadragtnaire, forty years 

old. 
Quadragesime, (f.) first Sunday 

in Lent. 
Quadrangulaire, quadrangular. 
Quadrature, (f.) quadrature.* 
Quadricolor, four-colored. 



* In another sense Quadrature is pronounced differently. 
Appendix B. 



See 



J 84 



APPENDIX. 



Quadriennial, quadriennial. 

Quadrifolium, (m.) quadrifo- 
lium. 

Quadrige, (m.) quadriga. 

Quadrilatere, (m.) quadrilate- 
ral. 

Quadrinome, (m.) quadrino- 
mial. 

Quadrisyllabe i (f.) quadrisyl- 
lable. 

Quadruple, (m.) quadruped. 

Quadruple, quadruple. 

Quamquam, (m.) college part. 

Quakre, (m.) quaker. 

Quarto, quarto. 

Quartz, (m.) quartz. 

Quaterne, (m.) quaternion. 

Que'rimonie, (f.) request. 

Questeur, (m.) questor. 

Questure, (f.) questorship. 



Quia, silence. 

QuindScagone, (m.) quindeca- 

gon. 
Quindecemvir, (m.) quinde- 
cemvir. 
Quinquaginaire, fifty years 

old. 
Quinquage'sime, (f.) Quinqua- 

gesima Sunday. 
Quinquennium, (m.) period of 

fifty years. 
Quinquerce, (m.) quinquerti- 

um. 
Quintile, quintile. 
Quintuple, quintuple. 
Quirinal, quirinal. 
Quinquerhne, (f.) quinque- 

reme. 
Ubiquisie, ubiquataire,(m.) ubi- 

quitarian.* 



B. (§ 131.) 



WORDS IN WHICH U PRECEDED BY g OR q IS SILENT, 



Aqueduc, (m.) aqueduct. 
Aqueux, watery. 
Aquila alba, white sublimate. 
Bague, (f.) ring. 



Begue, (c.) stammerer. 
Conjuguer, to conjugate. 
Dislinguer, to distinguish. 
Dogue, (m.) mastilK 



* When the gfl or </?/ in these words is followed by </, the sound of 
the w is that mentioned in the latter part of § 37 of the Grammar. 
When followed by any other vowel, it has the peculiar French sound. 
— It is to be remembered that all compounds or other derivatives or 
cognates of any of the words in this catalogue, follow in their pro- 
nunciation the analogy of the words to which they are related. 



APPENDIX. B. 



185 



r Equarrir, to square. 
'Equilibre, (m.) equilibrium. 
'Equinoze, (m.) equinox. 
'Equipage, (m.) equipage. 
'Equip ee, (f.) rank. 
'Equiper, to equip. 
'Equipoller, to be equivalent. 
'Equite, equity. 
'Equivalent, equivalent. 
'Equivaloir, to be equivalent. 
Equivoque, equivocal; (f.) pun. 
Figue, (f.) fig. 
Fougue, (f.) heat. 
Fugue, (f.) fugue. 
Gue, (m.) ford. 
Guebre, (m.) Guebre. 
GuMe, (f.) woad. 
Gueder, to cram. 
Gueer, to wash. 
Guelfes, (m. pi.) Guelphs. 
Guepe, (f.) wasp. 
Guerdon, (m.) reward. 
Guere, Guhres, but little, scarce- 

iy. » 

Gueret, (m.) fallow-ground. 
Gueridon, (m.) stand. 
Guerir, to cure. 
Guerite, (f.) sentry-box. 
Guerre, (f.) war. 
Guerroyer, to make war. 
Guef, (m.) watch. 
Guetre, (f.) spatterdash. 
Guetter, to watch. 
Gueule, (f.) mouth. 

16* 



Gueusaille, (f.) troop of beg- 
gars. 
Gueuse, (f.) pig (of iron, lead, 

etc.) 
Gueuser, to beg. 
Gueux, beggarly, indigent. 
Giu, (m.) misletoe. 
Guichet, (m.) wicket. 
Guichetier, (m.) turnkey. 
Guide, (m.) guide; (f.) rein. 
Guidon , (m.) standard. 
Guigne, (f.) kind of cherry. 
Guigner, to ogle, leer, have 

in one's eye. 
Guignon, (m.) ill luck. 
Guilee, (f.) shower. 
Guillage, (Q fermentation. 
Guillaume,(m.) William, plane. 
Guilledin, (m.) gelding, nag. 
Guilledou, (m.) courir le — , to 

gad about. 
Guillemets, (m. pi.) inverted 

commas. 
Guillemot, (m.) kind of plover. 
Guilleret, sprightly. 
Guilleri, (m.) sparrow's note. 
Guillocher, to wave. 
Guillotine, (f.) guillotine. 
Guimauve, (f.) marsh-mallow. 
Guimbarde, (f.) kind of wagon. 
Guimpe, (f.) nun's stomacher. 
Guinder, to hoist up, over* 

strain. 
Guinee, (f.) guinea. 



186 



APPENDIX. B. 



Guingais, (m.) wryness, ir- 
regularity. 
Guinguelte, (f.) country tavern. 
Guipure, (f.) kind of lace. 
Guirlandc, (f.) garland. 
Guise, (f.) guise, fashion. 
Guitare, (f.) guitar. 
Langue, (f.) tongue. 
Langueur, (f.) languor. 
Langufyer, to examine a hog's 

tongue. 
Languir, to languish. 
Longue, long. 
Morgue, (f.) dead-house, surly 

or haughty mien. 
JYargue (nargue de vous, a fig 
for you). 

Onguent, (m.) unguent. 

Quadrature, (f.) watch-work. 

Quadrer, to quadrate. 

Quadrille, (f.) troop; (m.) qua- 
drille. 

Quai, (m.) quay. 

Quaiche, (f.) ketch. 

Qualifier, to call, qualify. 

Quality (f.) quality. 

Quand, when. 

Quant, as. 

Quanlieme, what, which ; (na.) 
which day. 

Quantite', (f.) quantity. 

Quarante, forty. 

Quarrer, to square. 

Quart, (m.) fourth. 



Quartaut, (m.) quarter-cask. 
Quarte, (f.) quart. 
Quartenier or Quartinier, (m.) 

officer of a ward. 
Quartier, (m.) quarter. 
Quasi, almost. 
Quatorze, fourteen. 
Quatrain t (m.) quatrain. 
Quatre, four. 

Que, that; whom, which, what. 
Que/, what. 

Quelconque, whatever. 
Quelque, some. 
Quelquefois, sometimes. 
Quelqu'un, some one. 
Quemander, to beg privately. 
Quenotte, (f.) tooth of a little 

child. 
Quenouille, (f.) distaff. 
Queraiba, (m.) Brazil-wood. 
Qucrelle, (f.) quarrel. 
Querir, to fetch. 
Question, (f.) question. 
Que7e, (f.) quest. 
Queter, to hunt, beg. 
Queue, (f.) tail. 
Queussi-queuini, absolutely the 

same. 
Queux, (m.) king's cook. 
Qu?', who, which. 
Quiconque, whoever. 
Quidam, (m.) a certain man ; 

quidame,(L) a certain woman. 
Quief, quiet. 



APPENDIX. C. 



187 



Quignon, (m.) great piece of 

bread. 
Quillage, (m.) ship-toll. 
Quille, (f.) nine- pin, keel. 
Quinaire, (m.) quinarius (Lat- 

in). 
Quinaud, abashed, silly. 
Quincaille, (f.) copper or iron 

ware. 
Quinconce, (m.) quincunx. 
Quine, (m.) two fives at dice. 
Quinola, (m.) knave of hearts 

(at cards). 
Quinquenove, (m.) game with 

dice. 
Quinquina, ( m. ) Peruvian bark. 
Quint, fifth. 

Quintaine, (f.) quintain. 
Quintal, (m.) quintal, 
Quinte, (f.) a cough, freak, 

fifth. 
Quintessence, (f.) quintessence. 



Quinze, fifteen. 
Quiproquo, (m.) mistake. 
Quiqueron, (m.) nightman. 
Quittance, (f.) receipt. 
Quitter, to quit. 
Quolibety (m.) quirk, pun. 
Quotepart, (f.) quota. 
Quotidien, quotidian, daily. 
Quotient, (m.) quotient. 
Quotite, (f.) quota, share. 
Requiem, (m.) requiem. 
Requin, (m.) shark. 
Requinquer, to trick up, set off. 
Requint, (m.) a tax. 
Requis, requisite. 
Requisition, (f.) requisition. 
Sequelle, (f.) series, train, 

gang. 
Sequence, (f.) sequence. 
Sequestre, (m.) sequestration. 
Sequin, (m.) zechin. 
Vergue t \L) ship's yard.* 



C. (§139.) 

WORDS WHICH BEGIN WITH SILENT ft. 



Habile, clever. 
Habilement, cleverly. 
Habilete', (f.) cleverness. 



Habilissime, very able. 
Habillement, (m.) dress. 
Habiller, to dress. 



* All compounds, or other derivatives or cognates, of any of the 
words in this catalogue, follow in their pronunciation the analogy of 
the words to which they are related. 



188 



APPENDIX. 



Habilleur, (m.) dresser. 

Habit, (m.) coat. 

Habitable, habitable. 

Habitacle, (m.) habitation. 

Habitant, (m.) inhabitant. 

Habitation, (f.) habitation. 

Habittr, to inhabit. 

Habitude, (f.) habit. 

Habituel, habitual. 

Habituellement, habitually. 

Habituer, to habituate. 

Hagiographe, hagiographical. 

Haleine, (f.) breath. 

Halenee, (f.) breath. 

Halo, (m.) halo. 

Hamadryade, (f.) hamadryad. 

Hamepon, (m.) fish-hook. 

Harlequin, (m.) harlequin. 

Harlequinade, (f.) buffoonery. 

Harmale, (f.) wild rue. 

Harmonica, (m.) set of musical 
glasses. 

Harmonie, (f.) harmony. 

Harmojiieusement, harmoni- 
ously. 

Harmonieux, harmonious. 

Harmonique, harmonical. 

Harmoniquement, harmonical- 

ly- 

Hast, (m.) spear, long weapon. 
Hdlif, forward, bold. 
Hdtiveau, (m.) hasty pear. 
Hdtivcment, forvvardly. 
Hdlivcte, (f.) forwardness. 
Htbdomadaire, weekly. 



Hebdomadier, (m.) hebdoma- 
dary. 

Heberger, to harbor. 

Hebete, (m.) dunce. 

Hebiler, to stultify. 

Hebra'ique, Hebrew. 

Hebraisme, (m.) Hebraism. 

Hebreu, Hebrew. 

Hecatombe, (f.) hecatomb. 

Hegire, (f.) Hegira. 

Heiduque, (m.) heyduc. 

Helas ! alas ! 

Heliaque, heliacal. 

Heliastes, (m. pi.) heliastes* 

Helice, (f.) spiral line. 

Helicon, (m.) Helicon. 

Helioscope, (m.) helioscope. 

Heliotrope, (m.) turnsole. 

Hemerocale, (f.) day-lily. 

Hemicycle, (m.) semi-circle. 

He mine, (f.) hemina (meas- 
ure). 

Hemisphere, (m.) hemisphere* 

Hemispherique, hemispherical. 

Hemisliche, (m.) hemistich. 

Hemorrhagic, (f.) hemorrhage. 

Hemorrhoidal, hemorrhoidal. 

Hemorrho'ides, (f. pi.) piles. 

Hepatiqucy hepatical ; (f.) liv- 
erwort. 

Heptagon, (m.) heptagon. 

Heptarchie, (f) heptarchy. 

Herald i que, heraldic. 

Herbac/, herbaceous. 

Ihrbage, (m.) herbage. 



APPENDIX. C. 



189 



Herbe, (f.) grass, herb. 
Herber, to s {Dread on the grass. 
Herbette, (f.) tender grass. 
Herbeux, grassy. 
Herbier, (m.) herbal. 
Herbiere, [£.) herbwoman. 
Herborise?*, to seek plants. 
Herboriste, (m.) herbalist. 
Herbu, grassy. 
Hereditaire, hereditary. 
Hereditairement, hereditarily. 
Heredite,{f.) heirship, heritage. 
Heresiarque, (m.) heresiarch. 
Heresie, (f.j heresy. 
Heretique, heretic. 
Heritage, (m.) inheritance. 
Hiriter, to inherit. 
Heriticr, (m.) heir. 
Heritiere,[f.) heiress. 
Hermaphrodite, (m.) hermaph- 
rodite. 
Hermetique, alchemical. 
Hermttiqiiement, hermetically. 
Hermine, (f.) ermine. 
Her mine, ermined. 
Hermitage, (m.) hermitage. 
Her mite, (m.) hermit. 
Herodie.ns, (m. pi.) Herodians. 
Hero'icomique, heroicomical. 
Hero'ide, (f.) Heroid. 
Heroine, (f.) heroine. 
Hero'ique, heroic. 
He'roiquement, heroically. 
Heroisme, (m.) heroism. 
Heronneau, (m.) young heron. 



Heronniere,{L) heron's mew. 

Hesitation, (f.) hesitation. 

Hesiter, to hesitate. 

Heteroclite, heteroclite. 

Heterodox, heterodox. 

Helerodoxie, (f.) heterodoxy. 

Heterogene, heterogeneous. 

Heterogeneite, (f.) heteroge- 
neity. 

Heterosciens, (m. pi.) heteros- 
cians. 

Heur, (m.) good luck. 

Heure, (f.) hour. 

Heures, (f. pi.) prayer-book. 

Heureusement, happily. 

Heureux, happy. 

Hexaedre, (m.) hexsedron. 

Hexagone, (m.) hexagon. 

Hexametre, hexameter. 

Hiatus, (m.) hiatus, gap. 

Hidalgo, (m.) nobleman. 

ffier, yesterday. 

Hieroglyphe, (m.) hieroglyph- 
ic. 

ifieVog^//?/ri^ue,hieroglyphical. 

Hieroglyphiq uement, h ie r o - 
glyphically. 

Hilar ite, (f.) hilarity. 

Hippiatrique, (f.) veterinary 
art. 

Hippocras, (m.) hippocras. 

Hippodrome, (m.) hippodrome. 

Hippoglosse, (f.) horse-tongue, 
(plant.) 

Hippogriffe, (m.) hippogrifT. 



190 



APPENDIX. C. 



Hippopotame, (m.) hippopota- 
mus. 

Hirondelle, (f.) swallow. 

Hispanisme, (m.) Spanish idi- 
om. 

Histoire, (f.) history. 

Historial, historical. 

Historien, (m.) historian. 

Historier, to embellish. 

Historiette, (f.) story. 

Historiographer (m.) historio- 
grapher. 

Historique, historical. 

Historiquement, historically. 

Histrion, (m.) buffoon. 

Hiver, (m.) winter. 

Hivernage, (m.) winter-rest. 

Hivernal, winter, brumal. 

Hivcmer, to winter. 

#0/ ho! 

Hogner, to scold. 

.Hotr, (m.) heir. 

Hoirie, (f.) inheritance. 

Holocauste,(m.) burnt-offering. 

Holographe, all written with 
one's own hand. 

Hombre, (m.) ombre. 

Homelie, (f.) homily. 

Homicide, (m.) homicide. 

Hommnge, (m.) homage, duty. 

Hommager, (m.) homager. 

Hommasse, manly. 

J limine, (m.) man. 

Homoghic, homogeneous. 

Homogi utile, ( f. ) homogeneity. 



Homologation, (f.) allowance 
(law term.) 

Homologue, homologous. 

Homologuer, to allow, confirm. 

Homonyme, homonymous. 

Honnete, honest, civil. 

Honnetement, honestly. 

Honnetete, (f.) civility, honesty. 

Honneur, (m.) honor. 

Honorable, honorable. 

Honor ablement, honorably. 

Honoraire, honorary ; (m.)fee. 

Honorer, to honor. 

Honorifique, titular. 

Hdpital, (m.) hospital. 

Horaire, horary. 

Horizon, (m.) horizon. 

Horizontal, horizontal. 

Horizontalement, horizontally. 

Horloge, (f.) clock. 

Horloger,{m.) clock-maker. 

Horlogere, (f.) clock-maker's 
wife. 

Horlogerie, (f.) clock-mak- 
ing. 

Hormis, except, but. 

Horographie, (f.) horography. 

Horoscope, (m.) horoscope. 

Horoscoper, to cast a nativity. 

Horreur, (f.) horror. 

Horrible, horrible. 

Horrible ment, horribly. 

Hortolage, (m.) pot-herbs. 

Hospice, (m.) asylum for 
monks. 



APPENDIX. C. 



191 



Hospitalier, hospitable ; (m.) 
hospitaller. 

Hospitalite, (f.) hospitality. 

Hostie, (f.) victim, host. 

Hostile, hostile. 

Hostilement, in a hostile man- 
ner. 

Hostility (f.) hostility. 

Hole, (m.) host, guest. 

Hotel, (m.) hotel, house. 

Hotelier, (m.) inn-keeper, host. 

Hotellerie, (f.) inn. 

Hotesse, (f.) hostess. 

Hue ! gee ! 

Hui, now. 

Huile, (f.) oil. 

Huiler, to oil. 

Huiler, (m.) oilman, cruet. 

Huileux, oily. 

.Him, (m.) door. 

Huisserie, (f.) door-case. 

Huissier, (m.) door-keeper, 
usher. 

Huitre, (f.) oyster. 

Humain, human, humane. 

Humainement, humanly, hu- 
manely. 

Humains, (m. pi.) mortals. 

Humaniser, to humanize. 

Humaniste, (m.) humanist. 

Humanity (f.) humanity. 

Humble, humble. 

Humblement, humbly. 

Humectation, (f.) humectation. 

Humecler, to moisten. 

Humeur, (f.) humor, 



Humide, moist. 

Humidement , in a damp place. 

Humidite, (f.) humidity. 

Humiliant, mortifying. 

Humiliation, (f.) humiliation. 

Humilier, to humble. 

Humilite, (f.) humility. 

Humoral, humoral. 

Humorist e, (m.) humorist. 

Hyacinthe, (f.) hyacinth. 

Hyades, (f. pi.) Hyades. 

Hydraulique, hydraulic ; (f.) 
hydraulics. 

Hydre, (f.) hydra. 

Hydrographe, (m.) hydrogra- 
p/ier. 

Hydrographie, (f.) hydrogra- 
phy. 

Hydrographique, bydrographi- 
cal. 

Hydromancie, (f.) hydroman- 
cy. 

Hydromel, (m.) mead. 

Hydrophobic, (f.) hydrophobia. 

Hydropique, hydropic. 

Hydropisie, (f.) dropsy. 

Hydropote y (m.) water-drinker. 

Hydrostatique,{f.) hydrostatics. 

Hygiene, (f.) diet, regimen. 

Hygrometre, (m.) hygrometer. 

Hymen, (m.) Hymen. 

Hymenee, (m.) hymen, mar- 
riage. 

Hymne, (m. and f.) hymn. 

Hyperbole, (f.) hyperbole, hy- 
perbola, 



192 



APPENDIX. D. 



Hyperbolique, hyperbolical. 
Hyperboliquement , hyperboli- 

cally. 
Hyperbolae, hyperborean. 
Hyper critique, (m.) hypercritio. 
Hypocondre, hypocondriac. 
Hypocondriaque ,hypocondriac. 
Hypocrisie, (f.) hypocrisy. 
Hypocrite, hypocritical; (m.) 

hypocrite. 
Hypostases (f.) hypostasis. 
Hypostatique, hypostatical. 
Hypostatiquement,hy postSLiicsl- 

V 



Hypothenuse, (f.) hypothenuse. 

Hypothecate, hypothecary. 

Hypothecairement, by hypothe- 
cary action. 

Hypothhque, (f.) mortgage. 

Hypothequer, to hypothecate. 

Hypothese, (f.) hypothesis. 

Hypothetique, hypothetical. 

Hypothetiquement, hypotheti- 
cally. 

Hypotypose, (f.) Hypotyposis. 

Hysope, (f.) hyssop. 

Hysterique, hysterical. 



N. B. The h is aspirated at the beginning of nearly all proper 
names. The exceptions are : Hamilton, Harcourt, Hector, 
HeUne, Hercule, Her ode, Homer e, Horace, Hymen, Hyppo- 
lite. So too with the following : Hanovre, Hollande, and 
Hongrie, when they are preceded by the preposition de. 
Thus we must say, aVHanovre, aVHolland, d'Ho?igrie, 
though we say, le Hanovre, la Hollande, la Hongrie. 



D. (§ 150.) 

WORDS ENDING WITH er IN WHICH THE FINAL V IS SOUNDED. 



Alger, Algiers. 
Amer, bitter. 

Avant-hier, day before yester- 
day. 
Belve'der, Belviderc. 
Cancer, (m.) cancer. 
Cher, dear. 
Cuiller, (f.) spoon. 



Enfer, (m.) hell. 

'Fther, (m.) ether. 

Ftr, (m.) iron. 

Fier, haughty. 

Frater, (m.) young surgeon. 

Caster, (m.) stomach. 

Ccssner, Gessner. 

Hier, yesterday. 



APPENDIX. E. 



193 



Hiver, (m.) winter. 

Jupiter, Jupiter. 

Lucifer, Lucifer. 

Magister, (m.) village teacher. 

Mer, (f.) sea. 

Messer, (m.) master. 



Niger, Niger. 

Outremer, (m.) ultramarine. 
Pater, (m.) the Lord's prayer. 
Sadder, Sadder. 
Siathouder, (m.) stadtholder. 
Ver, (m.) worm. 



By many persons final r in the infinitive present of all verbs 
ending in er, though commonly silent, is sounded whenever 
the next word begins with a vowel. So too in the case of 
some adjectives ending in er, when the substantive which they 
qualify follows immediately and begins with a vowel ; e. g. 
(sounded) le premier acte, the first act, un leger obstacle^ a 
light obstacle ; but (not sounded) il est le premier a vous pro- 
mettre, he is the first to promise you, c'est un Tiomme leger et 
singulier en tout, he is a man fickle and singular in every 
thing. 



E. (§ 153.) 



WORDS IN WHICH FINAL S IS SOUNDED. 



Adonis, Adonis. 
Agesilas, Agesilas. 
Agnus, (m.) religious toy. 
Aloes, (m.) aloes. 
Amadis, Amadis. 
Angelus,{m.) angel us (a prayer) 
Anus, (m.) anus. 
Argus, Argus. 
As, (m.) ace. 
Athos, Athos. 
Atlas, Atlas. 

Bihus, (m.) trifle, of no impor- 
tance. 

17 



Bis, encore, over again. 

Bias, Bias. 

Blocus, (m.) blockade. 

Bolus, (m.) bolus. 

Bris, (m.) breaking, fracture. 

Briseis, Briseis. 

Brutus, Brutus. 

Calus, (m.) callus. 

Carolus, (m.) ancient coin. 

Cholera-morbus, (m.) cholera- 

morbus. 
Chorus, (m.) chorus. 
Delos, Delos. 



194 



APPENDIX. E. 



Dervis, (m.) dervis. 
Devis, (m.) discourse. 
Dumasis, Dumasis. 
'Ethiops, (m.) mixture of mer- 
cury and sulphur. 
Extremis [in), in extremity. 
Fils, (m.) son. 
Foetus , (m.) foetus. 
Gars, (m.) boy. 
Gil Bias, Gil Bias. 
Gratis, gratis. 
Hiatus, (m.) hiatus. 
Hippocras, (m.) hippocras. 
Ibis, (m.) ibis. 
Indivis, undivided. 
Intrus, intruded. 
Iris, Iris. 
Jadis, of old. 
Jonas, Jonas. 
Jonathas, Jonathan. 
Lapis, (m.) lapis lazuli. 
Laps, lapsed. 
Las Casas, Las Casas. 
Lesbos, Lesbos. 
Lis, (m.) lily. 
La Lys, the Lys (river). 
Mais, (m.) maize. 
Matthias, Matthias. 
Mars, Mars. 
Mttis, mestizo, mongrel. 



Minos, Minos. 

Motus, hush. 

Obtus, obtuse. 

Olibrius, (m.) conceited fool. 

Ore'mus, (m.) orison, prayer. 

Palus, (m.) marsh. 

Paris, Paris (man's name). 

Parisis, Parisian. 

Paros, Paros. 

Pathos, (m.) pathos. 

Phebus, (m.) bombast. 

Prospectus, (m.) prospectus. 

Protesilas, Protesilas. 

Pubis, (m.) pubis. 

Quitus, (m.) acquittance. 

Rasibus, close. 

Rebus, (m.) rebus. 

Regulus, Regulus. 

Relaps, relapsed; (m.) relapse. 

Rhinoceros, (m.) rhinoceros. 

Sinus, (m.) sinus, sine. 

&us (en), above. 

TUanos, (m.) tetanus. 

The'mis, Themis. 

TOws, Titus. 

Tournevis, (m.) key of a screw. 

Vinus, Venus. 

Virus, (m.) virus. 

Vis, (f.) screw. 



There are a few words in which final s is pronounced by 
some when they end a sentence or clause, and only then ; 
viz. gens, people, Jtsus, Jesus, os, (m.) bone, sens, (m.) sense, 
temps, (m.) time. 



APPENDIX. F. 



195 



F. (§ 154.) 

WORDS IN WHICH FINAL t IS SOUNDED. 



Abject, abject. 
Accessit, (m.) second prize. 
Achmet, Achmet. 
Aconit, (m.) aconite. 
Astarot, Ashtaroth. 
Azimut, (m.) Azimuth. 
Bajazet, Bajazet. 
Bismut, (m.) bismuth. 
Brest, Brest. 
Brut, rough. 
Christ (le), Christ. 
Chut! hush! 
Compact, compact. 
Comput, (m.) computation. 
Contact, (m.) contact. 
Correct, correct. 
Deficit, (m.) deficit. 
Direct, direct. 
Dot, (f.) dowry. 
'Elizabet, Elizabeth. 
Est (V), (m.) the East. 
Et cetera, et cetera. 
Fat, (m.) coxcomb. 
Fret, (m.) freight. 
Goliat, Goliath. 
Granit,{m.) granite. 
Hast, (m.) spear. 
Huit, eight. 
Indirect, indirect. 
Indult, (m.) indulgence. 
Intact, untouched. 



Introit, (m.) prelude, beginning. 

Lest, (m.) ballast. 

Licet, (m.) permission. 

Lut, (m.) lute. 

Malt, (m.) malt. 

Mat, unwrought ; (m.) mate. 

Nazaret, Nazareth. 

Net, neat. 

Occiput, (m.) occiput. 

Opiat, (m.) opiate. 

Ouest (V), (m.) the West. 

Pat, stale-mate (in chess). 

Pest, pest. 

Preciput, (m.) preference (law). 

Preterit, (m.) preterite. 

Prurit, (m.) itch. 

Ifopf, (m.) rape. 

jRif, (m.) rite. 

Rut, (m.) rut. 

Sept, seven. 

Sinciput, (m.) sinciput. 

Spalt, (m.) spalt. 

5jpaJ, (m.) spar. 

Strict, strict. 

Subit, sudden. 

Tacet, (m.) pause, rest. 

Tacit, tacit. 

Tact, (m.) touch, tact. 

Test, (m.) test. 

T/n'to, Thibet. 

Toast, (m.) toast. 



196 



APPENDIX. G. 



Transeat, (m.) transeat. 
Transit, (m.) passport. 
Ut, (m.) ut (note in the gamut). 
Vivat, long live. 



Yacht, (m.) yacht. 

Zenit, (m.) zenith. 

Zest, | entre le zist et le zest, 

Zist, ) neither good nor bad. 



G. (§225.) 

PROPER NAMES OF COUNTRIES, AND DISTRICTS LARGER THAN 
CITIES, WHICH DO NOT TAKE THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 



Acadie, Acadia. 
Alger, Algiers. 
Avignon, Avignon. 
Babylone, Babylon. 
Calabre, Calabria. 
Cambaie, Cambay. 
Candie , Candia. 
Carthage, Carthage. 
Cephalonie, Cephalonia. 
Cordoue, Cordova. 
Cornuaille, Cornwall. 
Corse, Corsica. 
Courlande, Courland. 
Cypre, Cyprus. 

Dominique (St.), St. Domingo. 
Florence, Florence. 
Gbxes, Genoa. 
Genhe, Geneva. 
Grenesey, Guernsey. 
Groningue, Groningen. 
Gueldres, Guelderland. 
Islrie, Istria. 



Ithaque, Ithaca. 

Leon, Leon. 

Lucques, Lucca. 

Madere, Madeira. 

Major que, Majorca. 

Madagascar, Madagascar. 

Malacca, Malacca. 

Malte, Malta. 

Maroc, Morocco. 

Mekelbourg, Mecklenburg. 

Minorque, Minorca. 

Modhne, Modena. 

Naples, Naples. 

Naxos, Naxos. 

Orange, Orange. 

Otrante, Otranto. 

Palmyre, Palmyra. 

Piedmont, Piedmont. 

Rome, Rome. 

Scanie or Schonen, Scania or 

Schonen. 
Seville, Seville. 



APPENDIX. H. 



197 



ToUde, Toledo. 
Tripoli, Tripoli. 
Tunis, Tunis. 
Valence, Valencia. 



Venise, Venice. 
Vicence, Vicenza. 
Wurtemherg, Wurtemburg. 
Wurzbourg, Wurtzburg. 



H. (§§237,238.) 



EXPRESSIONS IN WHICH SUBSTANTIVES ARE USED WITHOUT 
ANY DEFINITE ARTICLE. 



fond, at bottom. 
force de, by means of. 
forfait, as forfeited. 
1 froid, when cold. 
froment, for corn. 
genoux, on one's knees. 

heure indue, at an undue 
hour. 

honneur, as an honor. 

huis clos, privately. 

injure, as an injury. 

interet, on interest. 

jour prefix, at an appointed 

day. 

loisir, at leisure. 

main, for the hand, etc. 

mort, to death. 

nuit fermante, at night-fall. 

outrance, to extremity. 

papier, for paper. 

perpetuity in perpetuity. 

perte de vue, out of sight. 



A balle, with ball. 


A 


A barbe, for the beard. 


A 


A batons rompues, at various 


A 


times. 


jC 


A belles dents, with fine teeth. 


A 


A bled, for corn. 


A 


A bon Hire, by good right. 


A 


A bras, for the hand. 




A calif our chon, astride. 


A 


A cartouche, with a cartouch. 


A 


A chaux el a ciment, with solid- 


A 


, ity> 


A 


A cheval, on horseback. 


A 


A cozur jeun, fasting. 




A condition, on condition. 


A 


A contretemps, unseasonably. 


A 


A courbettes, in curvettes. 


A 


A dessein, designedly. 


A 


A eau, for water. 


A 


A demeure, for an end. 


A 


A feu, for fire. 


A 


A fleur, even with. 


A 


17* 





198 



APPENDIX. H. 



A pied, on foot. 
A plaisir, at pleasure. 
d poil, bare. 
A point, opportunely. 
A porlee, at hand. 
A poudre, for powder. 
A raison, by reason. 
A reculons, backward. 
A regret, with regret. 
A tatons, in the dark, groping. 
A Umoin, to witness. 
A temps, in good time. 
A terre, on the ground. 
A litre, under color. 
A tort, wrongfully. 
A vent, for wind. 
A voiles et a rames, by sails 
and oars. 

Aprhs diner, after dinner. 

Avant diner, before dinner. 

Avant midi, before noon. 

Avant terme, before time. 

Avec clemence, with clemency. 

Avec courage, with courage. 

Avec douleur, with pain. 

Avec faciliU, with facility. 

Avec joie, with joy. 

Avec justesse, with justness. 

Avec maturite, with maturity. 

Avec patience, with patience. 

Avec plaisir, with pleasure. 

Avec peine, with difficulty. 

Avec precipitation, with precip- 
itation. 
Avec precision, with precision. 



Avec prudence, with prudence. 
Avec raison, with reason. 
Avec soin, with care. 
Avoir bonne mine, to look well. 
Avoir commandement, to com- 
mand. 
Avoir conge, to have holiday. 
Avoir courage, to have spirit. 
Avoir dispute, to have a quar- 
rel. 
Demander reparation, to ask 

reparation. 
Depuis minuit, since midnight. 
Bonner assignation, to give a 
summons. 

Donner assurance, to assure. 
Donner attention, to attend. 
Donner chasse, to give chase. 

Donner conge, to give leave. 

Donner croyancc, to give cre- 
dence. 

Donner (se) garde, to take care. 

Donner (se)joie, to feel joy. 

Donner matiere, to afford mat- 
ter. 

Donner place, to give place. 

Donner rang, to give rank. 

Donner seance, to give a seat. 

Donner voir, to give a voice. 

'Ecuelle a oreillcs, porringer 
with ears. 

En ami, as a friend. 

En amiiii, in friendship. 

En avance, in advance. 

En bataille, in battle. 



APPENDIX. H. 



199 



En bateau, in a boat. 
En bonheur, in happiness. 
En campagne, in the field. 
En carrosse, in a coach. 
En chaleur, in heat. 
En colere, in choler. 
En conformity in conformity. 
En conscience, in conscience. 
En couche, brought to bed. 
En course, on a cruise. 
En crainte, in fear. 
En decadence, in a decline. 
En dif alliance, in a swoon. 
En demeure, in arrears. 
En deuil, in mourning. 
En devotion, in devotion. 
En eau, in water. 
En esperance, in hope. 
En etc, in summer. 
En exercise, in exercise, 
En extase, in extasy. 
En face, in face. 
Enfleur, in flower. 
En fond, at bottom. 
Enfraude, deceitfully. 
En j unite, in smoke. 
Enfureur, in fury. 
£/i guerre, at war. 
_E?i Aaioe, in hatred. 
En haleine, in breath. 
En liiver, in winter. 
.E>i larmes, in tears. 
.En main, in hand. 
En manteau, in a gown. 
En meme temps, at the same 
time. 



En oraison, at prayer. 

En paix } in peace. 

En parchemin, in parchment. 

En patience, in patience. 

En pieces, in pieces. 

£n place, in place. 

22tt pZein jour, in open day. 

Un possession, in possession. 

.En jr>roie, as a prey. 

.En reg-ne, in vogue. 

En repos, quietly. 

En reste, remaining. 

jEn songe, in a dream. 

En temps, in season. 

En fete, in head. 

En veau, in calf. 

En virile, in truth. 

£In vie, in life. 

.En tn7/e, in the city. 

En vue, in sight. 

Faire achat, to purchase. 

Faire bonne chere, to live in 
style. 

Faire chemin, to advance. 

Faire commandement, to com- 
mand. 

Faire defense, to defend. 

Faire depense, to expend. 

Faire deplaisir, to displease. 

jPcnVe diacre, to do deacon's 
duty. 

Faire diete, to diet. 

.Faire diligence, to exert one's 
self. 

Faire divorce, to divorce one's 
self. 



200 



APPENDIX. H. 



Faire don, to give. 

Faire estime, to cause esteem. 

Faire faillite, to fail. 

Faire guet et garde, to keep 
watch and ward. 

Faire (se) jour, to make way. 

Faire lecture, to read. 

Faire loi, to be obligatory. 

Faire maison nette, to clear the 
house. 

Faire ceuvre, to do something. 

Faire off re, to offer. 

Faire planche, to set a heroic 
example. 

Faire prejudice, to do harm. 

Faire rage, to storm, rage. 

Faire sejour, to reside, sojourn. 

Faire service, to do service. 

Faire vendange, to derive pro- 
fit. 

Lier conversation, to enter into 
conversation. 

Lier socieU, to enter into com- 
pany. 

Par adresse, by art. 

Par amour, by love. 

Par animosite', by animosity. 

Par aumone, by way of alms. 

Par avcnlure, by chance. 

Par bonds , by jumps. 

Par bonheur, by good fortune. 

Par bonU, by goodness. 

Par chagrin, in spite. 

Par canhns, by cantons. 



Par chants, by cantos. 

Par chariti, by charity. 

Par chicane, by trickery. 

Par crainte, by fear. 

Par depit, in spite. 

Par droit, by right. 

Par eau, by water. 

Par force, by force. 

Par fraude, by fraud. 

Par haine, by hatred. 

Par hasard, by chance. 

Par inadvertence, by inadver- 
tence. 

Par inUret, by interest. 

Par ironie, by way of irony. 

Par Jew, by play. 

Par lambeaux, by shreds. 

Par maniere d'acquit, by way 
of quittance. 

Par megarde, by inatten- 
tion. 

Par mepris, by contempt. 

Par mer, by sea. 

Par morceaux, by bits. 

Par ordre, by order. 

Par parties, by parts. 

Par pieces, by pieces. 

Par quartiers, by quarters. 

Par raillerie, by way of rail- 
lery. 

Par raison, on account. 

Par sau/s, by leaps. 

Par tas, in heaps. 

Par terre, by land. 



APPENDIX. H. 



201 






Par voies etpar chemins, on the 
road. 

Parler affaires, to talk of busi- 
ness. 

Parler chasse, to talk of the 
chase. 

Parler chicane, to talk chican- 
ery. 

Parler gkometrie, to talk geo- 
metry. 

Pour cause, for cause. 

Pour Dieu, for God's sake. 

Pour feve, (pois pour feve) for 
a bean. 

Pour lit, for bed. 

Pour oreiller, for pillow. 

Pour raison, for a reason. 

Pour recompense, for recom- 
pense. 

Sans argent, without money. 

Sans ciremonie, without cere- 
mony. 

Sans cesse, unceasingly. 

Sans compliment, without com- 
pliment. 

Sans contredit, without contra- 
diction. 

Sans delai, without delay. 

Sans difficulle, without diffi- 
culty. 

Sans doute, undoubtedly. 

Sans/agon, without ceremony. 

Sansfaute, without fail. 

Sans Jin, without end. 

Sans honneur, without honor. 

Sansjugement, without judgment. 



Sans misericorde, without mer- 
cy- 

Sans peine, without difficulty. 

Sans peur et sans reproche, 
without fear or reproach. 

Sans replique, without reply. 

Sans reserve, without reserve. 

Sans souci, without care. 

Sans vanite, without vanity. 

Sou a sou, cent by cent. 

Soutenir noblesse, to maintain 
one's nobility. 

Sur mer, on the sea. 

Sur parole, on hearsay. 

Sur pied, a-foot. 

Sur terre, on the ground. 

Tenir academie, to keep an 
academy. 

Tenir auberge, to keep an inn. 

Tenir banque, to keep a bank. 

Tenir chambre garnie, to keep 
furnished lodgings. 

Tenir chapelle, to be present at 
chapel. 

Tenir ecole, to keep school. 

Tenir hotellerie, to keep tavern. 

Tenir jeu, to keep on playing. 

Tenir pension, to keep a 
boarding-school. 

Tenir registre, to keep a re- 
gister. 

Tirer parole, to get a promise. 

Tirer promesse, to get a pro- 
mise. 

Tirer vanite 1 , to get nothing. 

Trouver moyen, to find means. 



202 



APPENDIX. I. 



SUBSTANTIVES WHICH HAVE TWO GENDERS, AND A DIFFERENT 
SIGNIFICATION IN EACH. 



I. (§257.) 





Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Aide, 


assistant, 


assistance. 


Jligle, 


eagle (bird, and coin), 


eagle (standard, con- 
stellation, and device). 


Ange, 


angel, 


fish like a thorn-back. 


Aune, 


alder, 


ell. 


Barbe, 


barb (horse), 


beard. 


Barde, 


bard, 


slice of bacon. 


Berce, 


red-breast, 


cow-parsnip. 


Cdpre, 


privateer, 


caper (pickle). 


Cartouche, 


scroll (in painting), 


cartridge. 


Coche, 


coach, caravan, boat, 


sow, notch. 


Cornette, 


cornet (officer), 


mob-cap. 


Couple, 


couple (man and wife), 


brace, two. 


Coureur, euse, racer, runner, 


street-walker. 


Courtisan, e 


courtier, 


courtesan. 


Cravate, 


Croat, 


cravat. 


Crepe, 


crape, 


pancake. 


'Echo, 


echo, 


echo (nymph). 


Enseigne, 


ensign (officer), 


sign, mark. 


Exemple, 


example, instance, 


writing-copy. 


Foret, 


gimlet, 


forest. 


Foudre, 


tun, 


thunderbolt. [nurse. 


Garde, 


keeper, warden, 


guards, watch, hilt, 


Givre, 


rime, hoar- frost, 


snake (in heraldry). 


Grtffe, 


rolls, register, 


graft. 


Guide, 


guide, tutor, 


rein. 


Heliotrope, 


sun -flower, 


jasper. 


Iris, 


rainbow, iris of the eye, 


sprig-crystal, name of a 
goddess. 





APPENDIX. I. 


2 




Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Laque, 


lacker, 


gum-lac. 


Livre, 


book, 


pound. 


Loutre, 


otter-hat, 


otter (animal). 


Manche, 


handle, 


sleeve, channel. 


Manoeuvre, 


laborer, 


manoeuvre. 


Masque, 


mask, 


ugly woman. 


Memoire, 


memoir, bill, 


memory. 


Merci, 


thanks, 


mercy, pity. 


Mode, 


mood, mode (of verbs), 


fashion, way. 


Mole, 


pier, mole (structure), 


moon-calf. 


Mort, 


dead man, 


death. 


Moule, 


mould, 


muscle (shell-fish). 


Mousse, 


cabin-boy, 


moss, froth. 


(Euvre, 


philosopher's stone, 


work, action. 


Office, 


duty, charge, business, 
prayers, 


, office, pantry, larder. 


Ombre, 


ombre (game), 


shadow. 


Page, 


page (boy), 


page (of a book). 


Paillasse, 


harlequin, 


straw-bed. 


Palme, 


hand's-breadth, 


palm-branch, victory, 


Pantomime, 


a buffoon, 


dumb-show. 


Pdque, 


Easter, 


passover. 


Paraltele, 


comparison, 


parallel line. 


Pendule, 


pendulum, 


clock. 


Perche, 


Perche (place), 


pole, perch. 


Ph-iode, 


summit, pitch, 


period, epoch. 


Personne, 


nobody, any body, 


person. 


Pique, 


spade (at cards), 


pike. 


Pivoine, 


gnat-snapper (bird), 


peony (flower). 


Plane, 


plane (tree), 


plane (instrument). 


Poile, 


stove, canopy, 


frying-pan. 


Ponte, 


punto, the punter (at 


laying of eggs. 




cards), 




Paste, 


post (military), 


post (for letters). 



203 



204 


APPENDIX. J. 




Masculine. Feminine. 


Pourpre, 


purples (disease), pur- purple dye, purple fish 




pie (color), 


Pretexte, 


pretext, pretence, pretexta (gown). 


Quadrille, 


quadrille (game at party of cavaliers. 




cards), 


Reclame, 


recall of a hawk, catch- word (in printing)- 


Reldche, 


rest, recreation, harbor. 


Saiyre, 


satyr, satire. 


Serpentaire, 


serpentarius (constella- snake-root. 




tion), 


Somme, 


nap, slumber, sum, summary, load, 


' 


name of a river. 


Souris, 


smile, mouse. 


Suisse, 


porter, Switzerland. 


Teneur, 


book-keeper, tenor, contents. 


Tour, 


circuit, turn, tour, trick, tower, rook (at chess). 


Triomphe, 


triumph, - trump. 


Trompette, 


trumpeter, trumpet. 


Vague, 


space, expanse, wave. 


Vase, 


vase, slime. 


Vigogne, 


hat of Vigonia wool, Peruvian sheep. 


Voile, 


veil, sail. 




J. (§§ 345, 355.) 




FRENCH NUMERALS. 


Cardinal. 


Ordinal. 


Un, une, one 


Premier or anicme, first. 


Deux, two. 


Second or deuxibne, second. 


Trois, three. 


Troisitme, third. 


Quatre, four. 


Quatrieme, fourth. 


Cinq, five. 


Cmqui&me, fifth. 



APPENDIX. J. 



205 



Cardinal. 
Six, six. 
Sept, seven. 
Huit, eight. 
Neuf, nine. 
Dix, ten. 
Onze, eleven. 
Douze, twelve. 
Treize, thirteen. 
Quatorze, fourteen. 
Q uinze, fifteen. 
Seize, sixteen. 
Dix-sept, seventeen. 
Dix-huit, eighteen. 
Dix-neuf, nineteen. 
Vingt, twenty. 
Vingt-et-un, twenty-one. 
VingUdeux, twenty -two. 

Vingt-trois, twenty-three. 
Vingt-quatre, twenty-four. 
Vingt- cinq , twenty-five, etc. 
Trente, thirty. 
Trente-et-un, thirty-one. 
Trente-deux, thirty-two, etc. 
Quarante, forty. 
Cinquante, fifty. 
Soixante, sixty. 
Soixante- dix, seventy. 
Soixante- onze, seventy-one. 
Soixante- douze, seventy-two. 

Soixante-treize, seventy-three, 

etc. 
Quatre-vingt, eighty. 



Ordinal. 

Sixikme, sixth. 

Septi&me, seventh. 

HuitUme, eighth. 

JYeuvihne, ninth. 

Dixihme, tenth. 

Onzieme, eleventh* 

Douzihme, twelfth. 

Treizieme, thirteenth. 

Quatorzi'eme, fourteenth. 

Quinzieme, fifteenth. 

Seizieme, sixteenth. 

Dix-septieme, seventeenth. 

Dix-huiiieme, eighteenth. 

Dix-neuvUme, nineteenth. 

Vingtieme, twentieth. 

Vingt-et-unieme, twenty -first. 

Vingt-deuxieme, twenty-sec- 
ond. 

Vingt-troisieme, twenty-third . 

Vingt«quatrieme,twenty -fourth. 

Vingt-cinquihne, twenty-fifth, 

Trentieme, thirtieth. [etc, 

Trente-et-unieme, thirty-first. 

Trerc£e-efeime , me,thirty-second, 

QuarantUme, fortieth. [etc. 

Cinquantihme, fiftieth. 

Soixantihme, sixtieth. 

Soixante- dixihne, seventieth. 

Soixante-onzi&me, seventy-first. 

Soixante-douzikme, seventy- 
second. 

Soixante-treizi&me, seventy - 
third, etc. 

Quatre-vingtttme, eightieth. 



18 



206 



APPENDIX. J. 



Cardinal. 
Quatre-vingt-dix, ninety. 
Cent, hundred. 
Ccnt-un, hundred and one. 
Deux cents, two hundred. 
Trois cents, three hundred. 

Mille or mil, thousand. 
Deux mille, two thousand. 
Dix mille, ten thousand. 
Mille fois mille, million. 



Ordinal. 

Quatre-vingt-dixie" me, ninetieth. 

Centime, hundredth. 

Cent-unieme, hundred and first. 

Deux-centikme, two hundredth. 

Trois -centttme, three hun- 
dredth. 
Milli&me, thousandth. 
Deux-millihrne, two thousandth . 
Dix-millieme, ten thousandth. 
Millionikme, millionth.) 



Observations on French Numerals. 

§ I. The numbers from twenty to thirty, from thirty to for- 
ty, from forty to fifty, from fifty to sixty, and from sixty to 
seventy, are all represented by adding the units to the tens, in 
the manner indicated above as to the numbers from twenty to 
twenty-five. The un is connected by means of the conjunc- 
tion et with the numeral denoting the ten, except in the case 
of the number eighty -one. The other units are connected 
with the ten without et in all instances. 

§ II. The French method of representing the numbers 
seventy and ninety is just as if we should call the number 
seventy sixty-ten, and the number ninety eighty-ten. The 
intermediate numbers between seventy and eighty, and ninety 
and one hundred, are represented in a way equivalent to our 
calling the number seventy-one sixty-eleven, seventy-two six- 
ty-twelve, (and so on to sixty-nineteen for seventy-nine,) and 
ninety-one eighty-eleven, etc. The French representation 
of the number eighty is equivalent to our calling it four-twen- 
ties, or, as we sometimes do call it, four-score. 

§ III. Of the cardinal numbers, un has, as represented, a 
fern. sing. une, a pi. masc. uns, a pi. fern, unes ; and quatre-vingt 
and cent have as plurals quatre-vingts and cents or cens, when 



APPENDIX. J. 207 

they are immediately followed by a substantive, and not other- 
wise. E. g. we say, quatre-vingt volumes, eighty volumes, 
deux cents (or cens) hommes, two hundred men ; but we must 
say, quatre-vingt-huit volumes, eighty-eight volumes, deux 
cent cinquante hommes, two hundred and fifty men. No other 
cardinal number is varied at all by way of gender or number. 
Vingt milles means twenty miles, not twenty thousand, which 
is vingt mille. 

§ IV. The only ordinal numbers which are varied at all by 
way of gender are premier and second, which have feminine 
forms, premiere and seconde. Some of the ordinal numbers 
occasio r Jly appear in the plural, which is formed by adding 
s ; e. g. tons les seconds jours du mois, every second day of the 
month, les secondes noces, the second nuptials. 

§ V. The ordinal number unieme is never found except in 
compoui ds, where premier (as also second) is inadmissible. 

§ VI. In dates mil is always used instead of mille ; in all 
other cases mille is used. E. g. mil huit cent quarante, 1840, 
deux mille femmes, two thousand women. 

§ VII. In mentioning the hour, the cardinal numbers are 
employed instead of the ordinal ; e. g. il est trois heures, it is 
three o'clock. In mentioning the day of the month, either the 
cardinal or the ordinal numbers may be employed ; e. g. le 
onze du mois, or le onzieme du mois, the eleventh of the 
month.* In mentioning the year of an era we must use the 
cardinal numbers ; e. g. Van mil sept cent, the year 1700. 
But we say le dixieme siecle, the tenth century, dans sa onzi- 
eme annee, in his eleventh year. 

§ VIII. In speaking of the order of sovereigns, the cardinal 
numbers must be employed, excepting for first and second. 
E. g. we must say, Henri Quatre, Henry Fourth, Louis 
Quatorze, Louis Fourteenth, George Trois, George Third ; 

* To this statement there is one exception : un can never be used 
thus. We must always say, le premier du mois, the first of the month. 



208 



APPENDIX. K. 



but, Philippe Premier, Philip First, Jean Second, John 
Second.* 

§ IX. The numerals cent and mille are used in an indefi- 
nite manner, just as the corresponding numerals in English 
often occur ; e. g. il lui Jit cent caresses, he showed him a 
hundred marks of kindness, faites lui mille amities de ma part, 
present him a thousand compliments on my behalf. 

§ X. There are many words of a numerical character in 
the French language besides those contained in the table 
which has been presented. Some of these additional numerals 
are called collective substantives ; e. g. trio, trio, demi-douzaine 9 
half-a-dozen, huitaine, week, dizaine, half-a-score, douzaine, 
dozen, quinzaine, fortnight, vingtaine, score, centaine, hun- 
dred, etc. Others are called distributive ; e. g. la moitie, the 
half, le quart, the quarter, un cinquieme, a fifth, etc. Others 
still are called proportional; e. g. double, double, triple, triple, 
centuple, hundred-fold. 



K. (§ 350.) 



ADJECTIVES WHICH HAVE DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS ACCORD- 
ING AS THEY STAND BEFORE OR AFTER THE SUBSTANTIVE TO 
WHICH THEY RELATE. 



Before. 
Certain. Certaine chose, certain 

thing. 
Different. Differentes choses, several 

things. 



After. 

Chose certaine, thing un- 
doubted. 

Choses differentes, dissimi- 
lar things. 



Galant. Galant homme, man of Homme galant, man of 
probity or tact. gallantry. 

Gentil. Gentille femme, genteel Femme gentille, heathen 
woman. woman. 

Grand. Grand homme, great man. Homme grand, large man. 

* Quint is used for Cinq, five, in speaking of the emperor Charles 
Fifth {Charles Quint) and pope Sixtus Fifth (Sixtc Quint). 



Appendix. L. 



209 



Grosse. Grosse femme, large wo- 
man. 

Honnete. Honnete homme, honest 
man. 

Nouveau. Nouveau vin, wine just 
brought. 

Plaisant. Plaisant homme, ridicu- 
lous man. 

Propre. Monpropre habit, my own 
coat. 

Sage. Sage-femme, midwife. 

Seul. Seul homme, only man. 



Femme grosse, woman 

with child. 
Homme honnete, polite 

man. 
Tin nouveau, new wine. 

Homme plaisant, agree- 
able man. 
Habit propre, neat coat. 

Femme sage, discreet wo- 
man. 
Homme seul, man alone. 



L. (§§ 532, 546.) 

INTRANSITIVE VERBS CONJUGATED WITH Stre INSTEAD OF avoir. 



*Aborder, to land. 
*Accoucher, to bring forth 
*Accourir, to run to. 
Alter, to go. 

*Apparaitre ) to appear. 
Arriver, to arrive. 
Avenir, to happen. 
Choir, to fall. 
*Convenir, to suit. 
Decider, to die. 
Dechoir, to decay. 
*Demeurer, to stay. 
*Descendre, to come down 
Devenir, to become. 



18* 



Disconvenir, to deny, to dis- 
own. 
*'Echapper, to escape. 
'Echoir, to become due. 
'Eclore, to blow. 
Entrer, to enter. 
*Expirer, to expire. 
Intervenir, to intervene. 
*Monter, to go or come up. 
Mourir, to die. 
Naitre, to be born. 
Partir, to depart. 
Parvenir, to attain. 
*Passer, to pass. 



210 



APPENDIX. M. 



*Perir, to perish. 
Provenir, to proceed. 
Redescendre, to redescend. 
*Remonter, to remount. 
Rentrer, to reenter. 
Repartir, to set out again. 
*Repasser, to repass. 
Ressouvenir, to remember. 
Ressortir, to go out again. 



Rester, to remain. 
Retomber, to fall again. 
Retourner, to return. 
*Resulter, to result. 
Revenir, to come again. 
Sortir, to go or come out. 
Survenv-, to befall. 
Tomber, to fall. 
Venir, to come. 



N. B. The verbs marked with an asterisk in the above cata- 
logue sometimes take avoir as the auxiliary in their compound 
tenses. Convenir, for instance, takes avoir when it means to 
please or suit, and etre when it means to agree ; e. g. cette 
maison rrCa convenu, et je suis convenu du prix, this house 
has pleased me, and I have agreed about the price. In most. 
if not all, other cases there is a slight shade of difference in 
signification which determines whether avoir or etre shall be 
employed. When avoir is used the sense is ordinarily more 
active than when etre is used ; e. g. the expression il a de* 
scendu fixes the mind on the action of descent, while il est de- 
scendu indicates more directly the situation after descent 



M. (§§ 547, 548.) 
TABLE OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS.* 

ABATTRE, to pull down. See Battre. 
ABSOUDRE, to absolve. See Rtsoudrc. 
ABSTEN1R, to abstain. See Tenir. 
ABSTRAIRE, to abstract. See Traire. 



* In this Table of Conjugation the compound lenses and all the 
personal pronouns are omitted, since they can easily be supplied. 



APPENDIX. M. 

ACCOURIR, to run to. See Courir. 
ACCROIRE, to believe. See Croire. 
ACCROITRE, to increase. See Croilre. 
ACCUEILLIR, to receive. See Cueillir. 
ACQUERIR, to acquire. 



211 







PARTICIPLES. 


Pres. Acquirant. 


Past, Acquis. 






INDICATIVE. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Acquiers. 
Acquiers. 
Acquiert. 


Acquirons, 

Acquerez. 

Acqui&rent. 


Acquerais. AcquerioriSo 
Acquerais. Acqueriez. 
Acquerait. Acqueraient, 




Perfect. 


Future. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Acquis. 
Acquis. 
Acquit. 


Acquimes. 

Acquites. 

Acquirent. 


Acquerrai. Acquerrons. 
Acquerras. Acquerrez. 
Acquerra. Acquerront. 

CONDITIONAL. 



Present. 

Singular. Plural. 

Acquerrais. Acquenions. 

Acquerrais. Acquerriez. 

Acquerrait. Acquerraient. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Acquiere. Acquhions. Acquisse. Acquissions. 

Acqui&res. Acqueriez. Acquisses. Acquissiez. 

Acquidre. Acquierent. Acquit. Acquissent. 



212 



APPENDIX. M. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. Plural. 

Acquerons. 
Acquiers. Acquerez. 
Acqui&re. Acquierent. 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Acquerir. 



ConquSrir, to conquer. 
s'Enquerir, to inquire. 



Reconquerir, to reconquer. 
Requtrir, to require. 



ConquSrir is used only in the infinitive, the indicative 
perfect, subjunctive imperfect, and the compound tenses. 
Requtrir is used only in law. S^eiiquerir is not used now, 
its place being supplied by sHnformer. Querir, to fetch, is 
used only in the Infinitive after some form of the verbs Aller, 
Envoyer, Venir. 



ADJOINDRE, to adjoin. 


See Joindre. 




ADMETTRE, to admit. 


See Mettre. 




ALLER, 


to go. 












PARTICIPLES. 




Pres. Allant. 




Past. AUL 








INDICATIVE. 






Present. 




Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Vais. 


Allons. 




Allais. 


Allions. 


Fas. 


Allez. 




Allais. 


Alliez. 


Va. 


Vonl. 
Perfect. 




Allait. 


Allaient. 
Future. 


Singular. 


Plural. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Altai. 


All dmes. 




Irai. 


Irons. 


Alias. 


Alkites. 




Iras. 


Irez. 


Alia. 


Alltrcnt. 




Ira. 


IronL 



APPENDIX. M. 



213 



CONDITIONAL. 



Present. 



Singular. 
Irais. 
Irais. 
Ira it. 



Plural. 
Irion s. 
Iriez. 
Ira lent. 



Singular. 
Aille. 
Mies. 
Aille. 



Present. 

Plural. 
Aillions. 
Ailliez. 
Aillent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Singular. 
Allasse. 
AUasses. 
AMI. 



Imperfect. 

Plural. 
Allassions. 
Alias si tz. 
Allassent. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Va. 

Aille. 



Plural. 
Allons. 
Allez. 
Aitlent. 



This verb is often Reflexive, and accompanied by the pro- 
noun en. As the verb thus used involves considerable diffi- 
culty for novices in French, we will exhibit the different tenses 
of s>en Aller, to go off or away. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present. 
s'en Alter. 



PARTICIPLE. 

Present. 
s'en Allant. 



214 



APPENDIX. M. 



INDICATIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Je xrfen vais. Nous nous en Je rrCen allais. Nous nous en 

allons. allions. 

Tu Ven vas. Vous vous en Tu Ven allais, Vous vous en 

allez. alliez. 

11 s^en va. II s*en vont. 11 s'en allait lis s'en al~ 

laient. 



Perfect. 
Je nVen allai, etc. 



Future. 
Je m'en iraL etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Je nx* en irais, etc. 



Present. 
Que je m^en aille, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Imperfect. 



Queje m?en allasse, etc. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Va Ven, 

Qh'i7 fi'en aille. 



Plural. 
Jlllons nous en. 
Allez vous en. 
Qu'ils s'en aillent. 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



Comp. of indic. Prcs. Je m'en suis alU, etc. 
Comp. of " Imperf. Je m'en etais alle, etc. 
Comp. of " Perf. Je m'enfus alle\ etc. 
Comp. of " Fut. Je m'en serai altt, etc. 



APPENDIX. M. 



215 



Comp. of condit. Pres. Je rrCen serais alU, etc. 
Comp. of subj. Pres. Que je m?en sois alU, etc. 
Comp. of " Imperf. Que je rrfenfusse alU, etc. 

APPARAITRE, to appear (as a ghost). See Connaitre. 
APPAROIR, to appear. Used only in the infinitive, and in 

the 3d person sing, indie, pres. ApperL 
APPARTENIR, to appertain. See Tenir. 
APPRENDRE, to learn. See Prendre, 
ASSAILLIR, to assault. 



Pres. Assaillant. 



participles. 

Past, Assailli. 



indicative. 



Singular. 
Assaille. 
Assailles. 
Assaille. 



Present. 



Plural. 

Assaillons, 

Assaillez. 

Assaillent. 



Perfect. 
Assaillis, etc. 



Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

Assaillais. Assaillions. 
Assaillais. Assailliez. 
Assaillait. Assaillaient. 

Future. 
Assaillirai, etc. 



Present. 



Assaille, etc. 



conditional. 

Present. 
Assaillirais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Imperfect. 
Assaillisse, etc. 



216 



APPENDIX. M. 



Assaillir has no Imperative mode. Tressaillir, to start, is 
conjugated in the same way. So is Saillir, to project, in the 
forms where it is used, which are only the participles and the 
third persons of the different tenses. Saillir, when it means 
to gush out, is conjugated regularly, like Finir. 

ASSEOIR, TO SIT DOWN. 







PARTICIPLES. 




Pres. Asseyant. 


Past, Assis. 






INDICATIVE. 






Present. 




Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Assieds, 
Assieds. 
Assied. 


Asseyons. 

Asseyez. 

Asseyent. 


Asseyais. 
Asseyais. 
Asseyait. 


Asseyions. 

Asseyiez. 

Asseyaient 




Perfect. 




Future. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular 


Plural 


As sis. 


Assimes. 


Assiirai. 


Assierons. 


Assis. 


Assites. 


Assitras. 


Assierez. 


Assit 


Assirent. 


Assiera. 
CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 


Assieront. 




Assie'rais, etc. 





APPENDIX. M. 



217 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Singular. 
Asseie. 
Asseies. 
Asseie, 



Present. 

Plural. 
Asseyions. 
Asseyiez. 
Asseient. 



Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

Assisse. Assissions. 

Assisses. Assissiez. 

Assit. Assissent. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Assieds. 
Asseie. 



Plural. 
Asseyons. 
Asseyez. 
Asseient. 



This verb most often appears as a Reflexive verb, s^asseoir, 
the tenses of which are formed by adding a second pronoun 
and employing etre for the auxiliary, as in all Reflexive verbs. 
(See se repentir, § 559.) The verb se rasseoir, to sit down 
again, is conjugated like s'asseoir. 

ASTREINDRE, to confine. See Craindre. 
ATTEINDRE, to reach. See Craindre. 
AVEINDRE, to fetch out. See Craindre. 
AVOIR, to have. See Gramm. § 533. 

BATTRE, TO beat. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Battant. Past, Battu. 

19 





218 


Present. 


APPENDIX. M. 
INDICATIVE. 


Imperfect 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular 


Plural. 




Bats. 


Battons, 


Battais. 


Battions. 




Bats. 


Battez. 


Battais. 


Battiez. 




Bat 


Battent. 


Battait. 


BattaienL 






Perfect. 




Future. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Singulai 


Plural. 




Battis. 


Battunes. 


Battrai. 


Battrons. 




Battis. 


Battites. 


Battras. 


Battrez. 




Battit. 


Battirent. 
Present. 


Battra. 
C0OTIT10NAL. 

Present. 
BattraiSi etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


BattronU 
Imperfect. 




Batte, etc. 


Singul 

Bats. 
Batte. 


Battisse, 

IMPERATIVE. 

ir. Plural. 
Battons. 
Baltez. 
Battent. 


etc. 



This verb, it will be seen, is conjugated regularly, save that 
one t i« dropped in all the persons of the sing, number in the 
pres. indie, and in the 2d pers. sing, imperative. 



APPENDIX. M. 



219 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Battre. 



Abattre, to pull down. 
Combattre, to fight. 
Debattre, to debate. 
Se Debattre, to struggle. 



S 9 'Ebattre, to be merry. 
Embattre, to lay the tire of a 
Rabattre, to beat down, [wheel. 
Rebattre, to beat again. 



BOIRE, TO DRINK. 







PARTICIPLES. 








Pres. Buvant. Past, 


Bu. 








INDICATIVE. 








Present. 




Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular, 




Plural. 


Bois. 


Buvons. 


Buvais. 




Buvions. 


Bois. 


Buvez. 


Buvais. 




Buviez. 


Boit. 


Boivent. 


Buvait. 




Buvaient. 




Perfect 




Future. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 




Plural. 


Bus, 


Bumes. 


Boirau 




Boirons. 


Bus. 


Bides, 


Boiras. 




Boirez, 


But 


Burent. 


Boira. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Boirais, etc. 




Boiront. 



220 




APPENDIX. M. 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 






Present. 




Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Boive. 


Buvions. 


Busse. 


Bussions 


Boives. 


Buviez. 


Busses. 


Bussiez. 


Boive. 


Boivent. 


But. 
IMPERATIVE. 

Present. 


Bussent. 




Singular. Plural. 








Buvons. 






Bois. 


Buvez. 






Boive, 


Boivent 





The verb S* Eniboire, to soak in, is conjugated in the same 
manner. 



BENIR, TO BLESS. 

This verb exhibits no irregularity, save that it has two past 
participles, Beni and Benit. The latter form is used only of 
things consecrated by a priest's blessing. 



BOUILLIR, to boil. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Bouillant. Past, Bouilli. 





APPENDIX. M. 2 




INDICATIVE. 


Present. 
Singular. Plural. 
Bous. Bouillons. 
Bous. Bouillez. 
Bout. Bouillent. 


Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 
Bouillais. Bouillions. 
Bouillais, Bouilliez. 
Bouillait. Bouillaient 


Perfect. 
BouiUis, etc. 


Future. 
Bouillirai, etc. 




CONDITIONAL. 




Present. 




Bouillirais, etc. 




SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present 


Imperfect. 


Bouille, etc. 


Bouillisse, etc. 




IMPERATIVE. 


Singular, Plural. 

Bouillons. 
Bous, Bouillez, 
Bouille, Bouillent, 



221 



So are conjugated : 
'Ebouillir, to boil away. 



Rebouillir, to boil again. 



Bouillir and Rebouillir are seldom employed except in the 
3d persons singular, or in the infinitive preceded by faire. 
19* 



222 APPENDIX. M. 

'Ebouillir is seldom employed except in the infinitive and past 
participle. 



BR AIRE, TO BRAY. 

This verb is seldom or never used except in the infinitive 

present, and the following tenses and persons : 

Singular. Plural. 

indic. Pres. II brait. lis braient. 

" Fut. // braira. Us brairont. 

condit. Pres. II brairait. lis brairaient. 



BRUIRE, to roar. 

This verb is used only in the infinitive present, in the pres- 
ent participle, Bruyant, and in the 3d persons singular and 
plural of the imperfect indicative, Bruyait, Bruyaient. The 
participle bruyant is often only an adjective ; e. g. voix bru- 
yante, sonorous voice. 

CEINDRE, to gird. See Craindre. 
CHOIR, to fall. See Dichoir. 
CIRCONCIRE, to circumcise. See Dire. 
CIRCONVENIR, to circumvent. See Tenir. 
CLORE, to shut up. See 'Before. 
COMBATTRE, to fight. See Battre. 
COMMETTRE, to commit. See Mettre. 
COMPARAITRE, to appear (as a witness). See Connaitre. 
COMPLAIRE, to humor. See Plaire. 
COMPRENDRE, to comprehend. See Prendre. 
COMPROMETTRE, to compromise. See Mettre. 
CONCLURE, to conclude. 



participles. 
Pres. Concluant. Past, Conclu. 



APPENDIX. M. 



223 



INDICATIVE. 



Singular. 
Conclus. 
Conclus. 
Conclut. 



Present. 

Plural. 

Concluons. 

Concluez. 

Conduent. 

Perfect. 



Conclus, etc. 



Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

Conduais. Conditions. 

Conduais, Conduiez. 

Conduait. Conduaient. 

Future. 
Condurai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
ConduraiSy etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Condue. Conduions. Condusse. Condussions. 

Condues. Conduiez. Condusses. Condussiez. 

Condue. Conduent. Conclut. Condussent. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Condus. 
Condue. 



Plural. 
Conduons. 
Conduez. 
Conduent. 



So are conjugated Exclure, to exclude, and Reclure, to 
shut up ; except that the past part, of Exclure is either Exclu 
or Exclus, and the past part, of Reclure is always Rectus. 



CONCOURIR, to concur. See Courir. 



224 



APPENDIX. M. 



CONDUIRE, to conduct. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. ConduisanL Past, Conduit. 



INDICATIVE. 



Singular. 
Conduis. 
Conduis. 
Conduit 



Present. 
Plural. 
Conduisons. 
Conduisez. 
Conduisent. 



Perfect. 
Conduisis, etc. 



Imperfect. 



Singular. 
Conduisais. 
Conduisais. 
Conduisait. 



Plural. 
Conduisions. 
Conduisiez. 
Conduisaient. 



Future. 
Conduirai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Conduirais, etc. 



Present. 
Conduise. etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Imperfect. 
Conduisisse, etc. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Conduis. 
Conduis e. 



Plural. 
Conduisons. 
Conduisez. 
Conduisent. 



APPENDIX. M. 



225 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Conduire. 



Construire, to construct. 
Cutre, to cook, bake. 
Deconstruire, to demolish. 
Decuire, to thin, render more 
DMuire, to deduct. [liquid. 
Detruire, to destroy. [fuse. 
'Econduire, to conduct out, re- 
Enduire, to plaster, do over. 
Entreluire, to gleam, shine a 
lnduire, to induce. Tlittle. 

bistruire, to instruct 
Introduire, to introduce. 



*Luire, to shine. 
*Nuire, to hurt. 
Produire> to produce. 
Reconduire, to reconduct. 
Reconstruire, to reconstruct. 
Recuire, to rebake. 
Reduire, to reduce. 
Reluire, to glitter. 
Renduire, to plaster anew. 
Reproduire, to reproduce. 
Seduire, to seduce. 
Traduire, to translate. 



CONFIRE, to preserve (fruits, etc.). 
CONNAITRE, to know. 



See ZhVa. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Connaissant. Past, Connu. 

INDICATIVE. 



Present. 
Singular. Plural. 

Connais. Connaissons. 

Connais, Connaissez. 

Connait. Connaissent. 

* Perfect. 

Connus, etc. 



Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

Connaissais, Connaissions. 
Connaissais. Connaissiez. 
Connaissais. Connais saient. 

Future. 
Connaitrai, etc. 



* The past participle of Luire (with its compounds,) and JYuire 
drop the final t which belongs to the past part, of the other verbs ; 
making Lui and Aitt, not Luit, Kuit. 



226 



APPENDIX. M. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Connaitrais, etc. 



Present. 
Connaisse, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Imperfect, 
Connusse, etc. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Connais. 
Connaisse. 



Plural. 

Connaissons. 
Connais sez. 
Connaissent. 



verbs conjugated like Connaitre. 



Apparaitre, to appear (as a 

ghost.) 
Comparaitre, to appear (as a 

witness.) 
Disparaitre, to disappear. 
Meconnaitre, to mistake. 



Paitre, to graze.* 
Paraitre, to appear. 
Reconnaitre, to recognize. 
Repaitre, to feed. 
Reparaitre, to reappear. 



CONQUERIR, to conquer. See Jicquerir. 
CONSENTIR, to consent. See Sentir. 
CONSTRUIRE, to construct. See Conduire. 
CONTENIR, to contain. See Tenir. 
CONTRAINDRE, to constrain. See Craindre. 
CONTREDIRE, to contradict. See Dire. 
CONTREFAIRE, to counterfeit. See Faire. 



* The verb Paxtrc is not used in the perfect indicative or the im- 
perfect subjunctive. Its compound, Rcpailrc, has those tenses. 



APPENDIX. M. 227 

CONTREVENIR, to contravene. See Tenir. 
CONVAINCRE, to convince. See Vaincre. 
CONVENIR, to agree, suit. See Tenir. 
CORROMPRE, to corrupt. See Rompre. 

COUDRE, to sew. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Cousant. Past, Cousu. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Couds. Cousons. Cousais. Cousions. 

Couds. Cousez. Cousais. Cousiez. 

Coud. Cousent. Cousait. Cousaient. 





Perfect. 


Future. 


Cousis, etc 




Coudrai, etc. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Coudrais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Singular. 
Couse. 
Couses. 
Couse. 


Present. 
Plural. 
Cousions. 
Cousiez. 
Cousent. 


Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 
Cousisse. Cousissions. 
Cousisses. Cousissiez. 
Cousit. Cousissent. 



228 



APPENDIX. M. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Couds. 
Couse. 



Plural. 
Cousons. 
Cousez. 
Consent. 



So are conjugated the compounds : 
Decoudre, to unsew. Recoudre, to sew again. 

COURIR, TO RUN. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Courant. Past, Couru. 



Present. 



Cours, etc. 



Perfect. 



Courus, etc. 



INDICATIVE. 



Imperfect. 
Courais, etc. 

Future. 
Courrai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Courrais, etc. 



Present. 



Coure, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Imperfect. 
Count sse, etc. 



APPENDIX. M. 



229 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Cours. 
Coure. 



Plural. 
Courons. 
Courez. 
CourenL 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Courir. 



Accourir, to run to. 
Concourir, to concur. 
Discourir, to discourse. 
Encourir, to incur. 



Parcourir, to run over. 
Recourir, to have recourse to. 
Secourir, to succor. 



COUVRIR, to cover. See Offrir. 
CRA1NDRE, to fear. 



participles. 
Pres. Craignant Past, Craint. 







INDICATIVE. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Crains. 
Crains. 
Craint. 


Craignons. 

Craignez. 

Craignent. 


Craignais. Craignions. 
Craignais. Craigniez. 
Craignait. Craignaient. 




Perfect. 


Future. 


Craignis, 


etc. 


Craindrai, etc. 




CONDITIONAL. 






Present. 




Craindrais, etc. 



20 



230 


APPENDIX. M. 






SUBJUNCTIVE. 






Present. 


Imperfect. 


Singular. 
Craigne. 
Craignes, 
Craigne, 


Plural. 
Craignions. 
Craigniez, 
Craignent. 


Singular. 
Craignisse. 
Craignisses. 
Craignit. 


Plural. 

Craignissions 
Craignissiez. 
Craignissent, 




IMPERATIVE. 






Singular. 

Grains. 
Craigne. 


Plural. 
Craignions. 
Craigniez. 
Craignent. 





verbs conjugated like Craindre.* 



Mjoindre, to adjoin. 
Astreindre, to constrain. 
Atteindre, to reach. 
Aveindre, to fetch out. 
Ceindre, to enclose. 
Contraindre, to compel. 
Dejoindre, to disjoin. 
Depeindre, to describe. 
Deteindre, to discolor. 
Disjoindre, to disjoin. 
Empreindre, to imprint. 
Enceindre, to enclose. 
Enfreindre, to infringe. 
Enjoindre, to enjoin. 
'Epreindre, to squeeze out. 
s' 'Eprendre, to be smitten. 



r Eteindre, to extinguish. 
'E\reindre y to bind. 
Feindre, to feign. 
Geindre, to whine, moan. 
Joindre, to join. 
Oindre, to anoint. 
Peindre } to paint. 
Plaindre, to pity. 
se Plaindre, to complain. 
Poindre, to dawn. 
Ratteindre, to catch again. 
Repeindre, to paint again. 
Rejoindre, to join again. 
Rcstreindre, to restrain. 
Teindre, to dye. 



* It must be observed, to avoid mistake, that in all these verbs the 
characteristic vowel preceding the termination indre is maintained 
throughout. Thus, the 1st pers. pi. pres. indie, of verbs ending in 
aindre is aignons ; that of verbs ending in cindrc is cignons ; that of 
verbs ending in oindre is oignons. So throughout the verbs. If this 
remark be borne in mind, Craindre will serve as a model for all the 
verbs ending in indrc. 



APPENDIX. M. 



231 



CROffiE, 


TO BELIEVE. 


PARTICIPLES. 






Pres. Croyant. Past, Cru. 






INDICATIVE. 






Present. 




Imperfect. 


Singular. 
Crois. 
Crois. 
Croit. 


Plural. 
Croyons. 
Croyez. 
Croient. 


Singular. 
Croyais. 
Croyais. 
Croyait. 


Plural. 
Croyions. 
Croyiez. 
Croyaient. 




Perfect. 




Future. 


Singular. 
Cms. 
Cms. 
Cmt. 


Plural. 
Crumes. 
Cmtes. 
Crurent. 


Singular. 
Croirai. 
Croiras. 
Croira. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Croirais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Plural. 
Croirons. 
Croirez. 
Croiront. 




Present. 




Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular 


Plural. 


Croies. 
Croies. 
Croie. 


Croyions. 

Croyiez. 

Croient. 


Crusse. 

Crusses. 

Crut. 


Crussions. 

Crussiez. 

Crussent. 



232 APPENDIX. M. 



IMPERATIVE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Croyons. 
Crois. Croyez. 

Croie. Croient. 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Croire. 

Decroire, disbelieve. Mecroire, to disbelieve. 

The verb Accroire is used only in the infinitive mode after 
faire ; e. g. vous voulez me faire accroire cela, you wish to 
make me believe that. Decroire is used only in opposition to 
croire ; e. g. je ne crois ni ne decrois l I neither believe nor 
disbelieve. 

CROITRE, to grow. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Croissant. Past, Cru. 







INDICATIVE. 






Present. 




Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Crois. 


Croissons. 


Croissais. 


Croissions. 


Crois. 


Croissez. 


Croissais. 


Croissiez. 


Croit. 


Croissent. 


Croissait. 


Croissaient 




Perfect 




Future. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Crus. 


Crumes. 


Croitrai. 


Croitrons. 


Crus. 


Crutes. 


Croitras. 


Croitrez. 


Crut. 


Crurent. 


Croitra. 


Croitront. 



APPENDIX. M. 



233 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Croitrais, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Singular. 
Croisse. 
Croisses. 
Croisse. 



Present. 

Plural. 

Croissions* 

Croissiez. 

Croissent. 



Singular. 
Crusse. 
Crusses. 
Crut. 



Imperfect. 
Plural. 
Crussions. 
Crussitz. 
Crussent. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular 



Plural. 
Croissons. 
Crois. Croissez. 

Croisse. Croissent. 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Croitre. 



Accroitre, to accrue. 
Decroitre, to decrease. 



Recroitre, to grow again. 
Sur croitre, to grow out. 



CUEILLIR, TO GATHER. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Cueillant. Past, Cueilli. 



INDICATIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Cueille, etc. Cueillons, etc. Cueillais, etc. Cueillions, etc. 

20* 



234 appendix. IMF- 

Perfect. Future. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

CutUliSy etc. Cueillimes, etc. Cueilleraiy etc. Cueillerons, etc. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Cueillerais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Cueille, etc. Cueillisst, etc. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Cueillons. 
Cueille. Cueillez. 

Cueille. Cueillent. 

VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Cueillir. 

Accueittir, to welcome. Recueillir y to collect. 

CUIRE, to cook. See Conduire. 

DEBATTRE, to debate. See Battre. 
DECHOIR, TO DECAY. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. (None.) Past, Dechu. 



APPENDIX. M. 



235 



INDICATIVE. 



Singular. 
De'chois. 
Dechois. 
Dechoit. 



Present. 

Plural. 
Dichoyons. 
Dechoyez. 
Dechoient. 

Perfect. 
Dechus, etc. 



Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

Dechoyais. Dichoyions. 
Dechoyais. Dechoyiez. 

Dechoyaxl. Dechoyaient 

Future. 
Decherraiy etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Decherrais, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Singular. 
Dechoie. 
De'choies. 
Dechoie. 



Present. 

Plural. 

Dechoyions. 

Dechoyiez. 

Dtchoient. 



Imperfect 
Singular. Plural. 

Dechusse. Dichussions. 
Dechusses. Dechussiez. 
Dechut. Dichussent. 



IMPERATIVE. 

(None.) 

Choir, to fall, is used only in the infinitive, and the past 
participle chu. 'Echoir, to fall out, happen, is conjugated like 
Dechoir, and has besides a pres. participle, ichianU 



DECLORE, to open. See 'Eclore. 
DECONFIRE, to discomfit. See Confire. 
DECONSTRUIRE, to demolish. See Conduire. 



236 APPENDIX. M. 

DECOUDRE, to unsew. See Coudre. 
DECOUVRIR, to discover. See Couvrir. 
DECRIRE, to describe. See 'Ecrire. 
DECROIRE, to disbelieve. See Croire. 
DECROITRE, to decrease. See Croitre. 
DECUIRE, to thin. See Cuire. 
DEDIRE, to unsay. See Dire. 
DEDUIRE, to deduct. See Conduire. 
DEFAILLIR, to fail, swoon. See Faillir. 
DEFAIRE, to undo. See Faire. 
DEMENTIR, to contradict. See Sentir. 
DEMETTRE, to displace. See Meltre. 
DEMOUVOIR, to turn from. See Mouvoir. 
DEPARTIR, to distribute. See Partir. 
DEPEINDRE, to depict. See Peindre. 
DEPLAIRE, to displease. See Plaire. 
DEPOURVOIR, to deprive. See Pourvoir. 
DEPRENDRE, to disengage. See Prendre. 
DEPREVENIR, to remove prejudices. See Preventer. 
DESAPPRENDRE, to unlearn. See Prendre. 
DESSERVIR, to clear (a table). See Servir. 
DETEINDRE, to discolor. See Craindre. 
DETENIR, to detain. See Tenir. 
DETRUIRE, to destroy. See Conduire. 
DEVENIR, to become. See Tenir. 
DEVETIR, to undress. See Revetir. 
DIRE, to say. 

participles. 

Pres. Disant. Past, Dit. 



APPENDIX. M. 



237 







INDICATIVE. 






Present. 


Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural.- 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Dis. 


Disons. 


Disais. 


Disions. 


Dis. 


Disez. 


Disais. 


Disiez. 


Dit. 


Disent. 


Disait. 


Disaient, 




Perfect. 




Future. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Dis. 


Dimes. 


Dirai. 


Dirons. 


Dis. 


Dites. 


Diras. 


Direz. 


Dit. 


Dirent. 


Dim. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Dirais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Diront. 




Present. 


Il 


mperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Disc 


Disions. 


Disse. 


Dissions. 


Dises. 


Disiez. 


Disses. 


Dissiez. 


Disc 


Disent. 


Dit. 

IMPERATIVE. 


Dissent. 




S 


ingular. Plural. 

Disons. 
Dis. Dites. 
Dise. Disent, 





238 



APPENDIX. M. 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Dire, 



Circoncire, to circumcise. 
Coiiftre, to preserve. 
Contredire, lo contradict. 
Deconfirc, to discomfit. 
se Didire, to unsay. 
lnterdire, to interdict. 



Maudire, to curse. 
Medire, to slander. 
Predire, to predict. 
Redire, to say again. 
Sujjire, to suffice. 



All these verbs, except Redire, differ from Dire in the 2d 
pers. pi. of the pres. indie, and the same pers. pi. of the imper., 
which end in sez instead of tes ; e. g. circoncisez, etc. Mau- 
dire doubles s whenever it occurs not final ; e. g. maudissons, 
maudissez, maudissent, etc. The past participle of Circoncire 
is circoncis ; that of Sujjire is suffi. 

DISCONVENIR, to disagree. See Tenir. 
DISCOURIR, to discourse. See Courir. 
DISJOINDRE, to disjoin. See Craindre. 
DISPARAITRE, to disappear. See Connaitre. 
DISSOUDRE, to dissolve. See Resoudre. 
DISTRAIRE, to distract. See Traire. 
DORMIR, to sleep. See Sentir. 



s'EBATTRE, to be merry. See Battre. 
EBOUILLIR, to boil away. See Bouillir. 
ECHOIR, to fall out. See Dechoir. 
ECLORE, to open, hatch. 

This verb is used only in the infinitive mode, and the fol- 
lowing forms : 

Part. Past, 'Edos. 



APPENDIX. M. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


indic Pres. 'Eclot. 


'Eclosent. 


" Fut. 'Eclora. 


'Ecloront. 


condit. Pres. 'Ecldrait. 


'Ecloraient 


subj. Pres. 'Eclose. 


'Eclosent. 



239 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE 'Eclore. 



Clore, to shut up. 
Declore, to open. 



Enclore, to enclose. 
For dor e, to foreclose. 



These verbs are seldom employed save in the infinitive or 
the participle past. 

ECONDUIRE, to conduct out, refuse. See Conduire. 
ECRIRE, TO WRITE. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. 'Ecrivant. Past, 'Ecrit. 



INDICATIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

'Ecris. 'Ecrivons. 'Ecrivais. 'Ecrivions. 

'Ecris. 'Ecrivez. 'Ecrivais. 'Ecriviez. 

'Ecrit. 'Ecrivent. 'Ecrivait. 'Ecrivaient. 



Perfect. 



Ecrivis, etc. 



Future. 



'Ecrirai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
'Ecrirais, etc. 



240 



APPENDIX. M. 



Present. 
'Ecrive, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Imperfect. 
r Ecrivisse t etc. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

'Ecris. 
'Ecrive. 



Plural. 
'Ecrivons. 
'Ecrivez. 
'Ecrivent. 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE 'Ecrire. 



Circonscrire, to circumscribe. 
D ecrire, to describe. 
Inscrire, to inscribe. 
Prescrire, to prescribe. 



Proscrire, to proscribe. 
Recrire, to write again. 
Souscrire, to subscribe. 
Transcrire, to transcribe. 



ELIRE, to elect. See Lire. 

EMBATTRE, to lay the tire of a wheel. See Battr 
EMBOIRE (S ? ), to imbibe. SeelBoire. 
EMETTRE, to emit. See Mettre. 
EMOUDRE, to grind. See Moudre. 
EMOUVOIR, to move. See Mouvoir. 
EMPREINDRE, to imprint. See Craindre. 
ENCEINDRE, to enclose. See Ceindre. 
ENCLORE, to enclose. See 'Edore. 
ENCOURIR, to incur. See Courir. 
ENDORMIR, to lull asleep. See Dormir. 
ENDU1RE, to plaster. See Conduire. 
ENFREINDRE, to infringe. See Craindre. 
ENJOINDRE, to enjoin. See Craindre. 
ENQUERIR (S 1 ), to inquire See JJequirir. 
ENSUIVRE (S'), to follow. See Suivre. 



APPENDIX. M. 

ENTRELUIRE, to gleam. See Conduire. 
ENTREMETTRE (S'), to interpose. See Mettre. 
ENTREPRENDRE, to undertake. See Prendre. 
ENTRETENIR, to entertain. See Tenir. 
ENTREVOIR, to penetrate, see dimly. See Voir. 
ENTR'OUIR, to hear imperfectly. See Ouir. 
ENTR'OUVRIR, to open a little. See Offrir. 
ENVOYER, to send. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Envoy ant. Past, Envoye. 



241 







INDICATIVE. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Envoye. 

Envoyes. 

Envoye. 


Envoy ons. Envoyais. Envoy ions. 
Envoyez. Envoyais. Envoyiez. 
Envoyent. Envoyait. Envoyaient 




Perfect. 


Future. 


Envoyai, 


etc. 


Enverrai, etc. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Enverrais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Envoye, etc. 


Envoyasse, etc. 



21 



242 APPENDIX. M. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. Plural. 

Envoyons. 
Envoy e. Envoy ez. 

Envoy e. Envoy ent. 

So conjugate Renvoyer, to send back. N. B. It will be 
perceived that Envoyer is regular only in the fut. indie, and 
pres. condit., making Enverrai and Enverrais instead of En- 
voyerai and Envoyerais. 

EPREINDRE, to squeeze out. See Craindre. 
EPRENDRE (S'), to be smitten. See Prendre. 
EQUIVALOIR, to be equivalent. See Valoir. 
ETEINDRE, to extinguish. See Craindre. 
ETRE, to be. See Gramm. § 534. 
ETREINDRE, to bind. See Craindre. 
EXCLURE, to exclude. See Conclure. 
EXTRAIRE, to extract. See Traire. 



FAILLIR, to fail. 

This verb is used only in the infinitive and in the following 
forms : 

part. Pres. Faillant. 

" Past, Failli. 
iNDic. Perf. Faillis, etc. (regularly). 

FAIRE, TO DO, MAKE. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Faisant. Past, Fait. 







APPENDIX. M. 








INDICATIVE. 






Present 




Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Fais. 


Faisons. 


Faisais. 


Faisions. 


Fais. 


Faites. 


Faisals, 


Faisiez. 


Fait 


Font. 


Faisait. 


Faisaient. 



243 



Fis, etc. 



Perfect. 



Future. 



Ferai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Ferais, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Singular. 
Fasse. 
Fasses. 
Fasse. 



Present. 

Plural. 
Fassions. 
Fassiez. 
Fassent. 



Imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. 

Fisse. Fissions. 

Fisses. Fissiez. 

Fit. Fissent. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Fais. 
Fasse. 



Plural. 
Faisons. 
Faites. 
Fassent. 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Faire. 



Contrefaire, to counterfeit 
Dtfaire, to undo, defeat. 
se Defaire, to get rid of. 



Forfaire, to forfeit. 
Malfaire, to do mischief. 
Mefaire, to do wrong. 



244 APPENDIX. M. 

Parfaire, to complete. Satisfaire, to satisfy. 

Redtfaire, to undo again. Surfaire, to exact. 

Refaire, to do or make again. 



FALLOIR, TO BE NECESSARY. 

This is the same as the impersonal verb il faut. See 
Gramm. § 551. 



FEINDRE, to feign. See Craindre. 
FERIR, to STRIKE. 

This verb is used only, in the phrase sans coup ferir, with- 
out striking a blow ; and, rarely, in the past part. /en/. 

FLEURIR, TO BLOSSOBl, flourish. 

This verb, when it is used concerning plants or flowers, is 
perfectly regular in its forms. When it is used figuratively, 
as e. g. in speaking of the prosperity of a kingdom, its pres. 
part, is Florissant, and the imperf. tense indie, is Florissais, 
etc., and otherwise it is regular. Refleurir, to blossom or 
flourish again, follows the analogy of its primitive in this re- 
spect. 

FRIRE, TO FRY. 

This verb is generally used in the infinitive with some tense 
offaire ; asfaitesfrire, etc. The following forms, however, 
sometimes occur : 

part. Past, Frit. 

indic. Pres. Fris, Fris, Frit. (No plural.) 

" Fut. Frirai, etc., throughout. 
condit. Pres. Frirais, etc., throughout. 



APPENDIX. M. 245 

So is conjugated Refrire^ to fry again. 

FUIR, TO FLEE. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Fuyant. Past, Fui. 







INDICATIVE. 




Singular. 
Fuis. 
Fuis. 
Fuit. 


Present. 

Plural. 

Fuyons. 

Fuyez. 

Fuient. 


Singular 
Fuyais. 
Fuyais. 
Fuyait. 


Imperfect. 

Plural. 

Fuyions. 

Fuyiez. 

Fuyaient. 


Fuis, etc. 


Perfect. 


Fuirai, i 

CONDITIONAL. 


Future. 

etc. 






Present. 
Fuirais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 




Singular. 
Fuie. 
Fuies. 
Fuie. 


Present 

Plural. 

Fuyions. 

Fuyiez. 

Fuyent. 


Singular. 
Fuisse. 
Fuisses. 
Fuit. 
21* 


Imperfect. 

Plural. 
Fuissions. 
Fuissiez. 
Fuissent. 



246 APPENDIX. M. 



IMPERATIVE. 

Singular, Plural. 

Fuyons. 
Fuis. Fuyez. 

Fuie. Fuyent. 

So conjugate s'Enfuir, to run away. It is not uncommon 
to employ the verb Prendre, to take, with the substantive la 
fuite, instead of the forms of Fuir or s^Enfuir; e. g. je pri-s la 
fuite, I fled, etc. 

GEINDRE, to whine, moan. See Craindrt. 
GESIR, to lie. 

This verb is now employed only in the following forms : 

pakt. Pres. Gisant. 

indic. Pres. Git, Nous gisons, lis gisent. 
" Imperf. // gisait. 

It is very seldom used except in monumental inscriptions 
thus : ci-git, here lies. 



HAIR, TO HATE. 

There is no irregularity in the manner of spelling the dif- 
ferent forms of this verb. In the manner of pronunciation, 
however, there is some deviation from the model, Finir ; viz. 
in the three singular persons of the present indicative, and in 
the 2d pers. singular imperative, the letters ai, which are else- 
where referred to distinct syllables, are sounded together in 
one syllable, as represented in § 20 of the Grammar. It 
should be observed, moreover, that there is no perfect tense 
in the indicative of this verb, nor imperfect tense in the sub- 
junctive. 



APPENDIX. M. 



247 



INDUIRE, to induce. See Conduire. 
INSCRIRE, to inscribe. See 'Ecrire. 
INSTRUIRE, to instruct. See Construire. 
INTERDIRE, to interdict. See Dire. 
INTERROMPRE, to interrupt. SeeRompre. 
INTERVENER, to intervene. See Venir. 
INTRODUIRE, to introduce. See Conduire. 
ISSIR, to come from. 

The only forms of this verb which are in use are the part, 
pres., Issant, and the part, past, Issu. 

JOINDRE, to join. See Craindre. 



LIRE, TO READ. 





Pres. 


Lisant. 


Past, Lu. 






INDICATIVE. 




Present. 




Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 




Singular. Plural. 


Lis. 


Lisons. 




Lisais. Lisions . 


Lis. 


Lisez. 




Lisais. Lisiez. 


Lit. 


Lisent. 




Lisail. Lisaient, 



Lus, etc. 



Perfect. 



Future. 



Lirai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 



Present. 
Lirais, etc. 



248 APPENDIX. M. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Present Imperfect, 

Lise, etc. Lusse, etc. 



IMPERATIVE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Lisons. 
Lis, Lisez. 

Lise, Lisent, 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Lire. 

'Elire, to elect. Relire, to read again. 

LUIRE, to shine. See Conduire, 

MAINTENIR, to maintain. See Tenir, 
MALFAIRE, to do biischief. See Faire. 
MAUDIRE, to curse. See Dire. 
MECONNAITRE, to mistake. See Connaitre. 
MECROIRE, to disbelieve. See Croire. 
MEDIRE, to slander. See Dire, 
MEFAIRE, to do wrong. See Faire, 
MENTIR, to lie. See Sentir. 
MEPRENDRE, to mistake. See Prendre. 
MESAVENIR, to succeed ill. See Tenir. 
MESOFFRIR, to underbid. See Offrir, 
MESSEOIR, not to fit. See Seoir, 
METTRE, to put. 

participles. 

Pres. Mettant, Past, Mis, 



APPENDIX. M. 



249 



INDICATIVE. 



Singular. 

Mets. 

Mets. 

Met. 



Present. 

Plural. 
Mettons. 
Mettez. 
Mettent. 



Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

Mettais. Mettions. 

Mettais. Mettiez. 

Mettait. Mettaient. 





Perfect. 


Future. 


Mis, etc. 




Mettrai, etc. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Mettrais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 






Present. 


Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Mette. 


Mettions. 


Misse. 


Missions 


Mettes. 


Mettiez. 


Misses. 


Missiez. 


Mette. 


Mettent. 


Mit. 

IMPERATIVE. 


MissenL 




Singular. Plural. 








Mettons. 






Mets. 


Mettez. 






Mette. 


Mettent. 





VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Mettre. 



Admettre, to admit. 
Commettre, to commit. 
Compromettre, to compromise. 



Dtmettre, to put out. 
'Emettre, to emit. 
Enlremettre (s 1 ), to interpose. 



250 

Omettre, to omit. 
Permettre, to permit. 
Promettre, to promise. 



APPENDIX. M. 



Remettre, to remit, etc. 
Soumettre, to submit. 
Transmcltre, to transmit. 



MOUDRE, TO GRIND. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Moulant. Past, Moulu. 







INDICATIVE. 






Present. 




Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Mouds. 


Moulons. 


Moulais. 


Moulions. 


Mouds. 


Moulez. 


Moulais. 


Mouliez. 


Moud. 


Moulent. 


Moulait. 


Moulaieni 




Perfect. 




Future. 


Moulus, 


etc. 


Moudrai, 


etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Moudrais, etc. 



Moule. etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Moulusse, etc. 



IMPERATIVE. 

Present. 

Singular. Plural. 

Moulons. 
Mouds. Moulez. 

Moule. Moulent. 



APPENDIX. M. 
VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Moudre. 

'Emoudre y to whet. Remoudre, to grind again. 



251 



MOURIR, to die. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Mourant. Past, Mort. 







INDICATIVE. 








Present. 




Imperfect. 


Singular 


Plural. 


Singular. 




Plural. 


Meurs. 


Mourons. 


Mourais. 




Mourions. 


Meurs. 


Mourez. 


Mourais. 




Mouriez. 


MeurL 


Meurent. 


Mow ait. 




Mouraient 




Perfect. 




Future. 


Mourus, 


etc. 


Mourrai, etc. 





CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Mourrais, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Meure. Mourions. * Mourusse. Mourussions. 

Meures. Mouriez. Mourusses. Mourussiez. 

Meure. Meurent. Mourut. Mourussent. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Meurs. 
Meure. 



Plural. 

Mourons. 

Mourez. 

Meurent. 



252 



APPENDIX. M. 



MOUVOIR, to move. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Mouvant. Past, Mu. 



Singular. 
Meus. 
Mens. 
Meut. 



Mus, etc. 



INDICATIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Mouvons. Mouvais. Mouvions. 

Mouvez. Mouvais. Mouviez. 

Meuvent. Mouvait. Mouvaient. 

Perfect. Future. 

Mouvrai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Mouvrais, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Singular. 
Meuve. 
Meuves. 
Meuve. 



Present. 

Plural. 
Mouvions. 
Mouviez. 
Meuvent. 



Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

Musse. Mussions. 

Musses. Mussiez. 

Mut. Mussent. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Meus. 
Meuve. 



Plural. 

Mouvons. 

Mouvez. 

Meuvent. 



APPENDIX. M. 



253 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE MoUVOir. 

Demouvoir, to dissuade. Promouvoir, to promote. 

'Emouvoir, to stir up, move. 



NAITRE, TO BE BORN. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Naissant. Past, NL 



INDICATIVE. 



Singular. 
JYais. 
Nais. 
Wait. 



Present. 

Plural. 

Naissons. 

Naissez. 

Naissent. 

Perfect. 



Naquis, etc. 



Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

Naissais. Naissions. 

Naissais. Naissiez. 

Naissait. Naissaient. 

Future. 
Naitrai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Naitrais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Imperfect, 

Naisse, etc. Naquisse, etc. 



IMPERATIVE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Naissons. 
Nais. Naissez. 

Naisse. Naissent 

22 



254 



APPENDIX. M. 



So conjugate Renaitre, to be born again. 

NUIRE, to hurt. See Conduire. 

OBTENIR, to obtain. See Tenir. 
OFFRIR, to offer. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Offrant. Past, Offert. 



INDICATIVE. 



Qffre, etc. 



Offris, etc. 



Present. 



Perfect. 



Imperfect. 
Offrais, etc. 

Future. 
Offrirai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Offrirais, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Ofre, etc. Offrisse, etc. 



IMPERATIVE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Offrons. 
Offre. Offrez. 

Offre. Offrent. 



appendix. M. 255 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Offrir. 



Couvrir, to cover. Ouvrir, to open. 

Decouvrir, to discover. Recouvrir, to cover again. 

Entr'ouvrir, to open a little. Rouvrir, to open again. 

Misoffrir, to underbid. Souffrir, to suffer. 



OINDRE, to anoint. See'Craindre. 
OMETTRE, to omit. See Mettre. 

OUIR, TO HEAR. 

This verb is used only in the infinitive and in the following 
forms : 

part. Past, Ou'i (used with Avoir). 

indic. Perf. J'ouis, 11 ouit. 

subj. Imperf. Que fou'isse, Qu'i'Z ouit. 

The same is true of the compound Entr^oUir, to hear im- 
perfectly. 

OUVRIR, to open. See Offrir. 

PAITRE, to feed. See Connaitre. 
PARAITRE, to appear. See Connaitre. 
PARCOURIR, to run over. See Courir. 
PARFAIRE, to complete. See Faire. 
PARTIR, to set out. See Sentir. 
PARVENIR, to attain. See Tenir. 
PEINDRE, to paint. See Craindre. 
PERMETTRE, to permit. See Mettre. 
PLAINDRE, to pity. See Craindre. 

PLA1RE, TO PLEASE. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Plaisant. Past, Plu. 



256 



APPENDIX. M. 



INDICATIVE. 



Present. 



Plais. etc. 



Plus, etc. 



Perfect. 



Imperfect. 
Plaisais, etc. 

Future. 
PlairaL etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Plairais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Plaise, etc. Plusse, etc. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Plais. 
Plaise. 



Plural. 
Plctisons* 
Plaisez. 
Plaisent. 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Plaire. 



Complaire, to humor. 
DSplaire, to displease. 



Faire, to conceal. 



PLEUVOLR, to rain. 

This verb is seldom used save impersonally, as in § 553. 
The forms there given will indicate the forms of the plural 
number and of the 1st and 2d persons singular. 



appendix. M. 257 

POINDRE, to dawn. See Craindre. 
POURSUIVRE, to pursue. See Snivre. 
POURVOIR, TO PROVIDE. 

This verb is a compound of Voir, but differs from it in the 
following tenses, and in these only. 

indic. Perf. Pourvus, etc. 

" Fut. Pourvoirai, etc. 
condit. Pres. Pourvoirais, etc. 
subj. Imperf. Pourvusse, etc. 

POUVOIR, TO BE ABLE. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Pouvant. Past, Pit. 





INDICATIVE. 




Singular. 


Present. 

Plural. 


Singular 


Imperfect. 

Plural. 


Puis or Peux* Pouvons. 
Peux. Pouvez. 
Peut. Peuvent. 


Pouvais. 
Pouvais. 
Pouvaii. 


Pouvions. 

Pouviez. 

Pouvaient. 


Pus, etc. 


Perfect. 


Pourrai, 


Future, 
etc. 




CONDITIONAL. 








Present. 






Pourrais, etc. 






SUBJUNCTIVE. 




Puisse, etc. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 
Pusse, etc. 



* Of these two forms the first is most commonly used. It must 
always be used in an interrogative expression : Puis-je t not Peux-je? 
22* 



258 



APPENDIX. M. 



IMPERATIVE. 

(Wanting.) 

PREDIRE, to predict. See Dire. 
PRENDRE, TO TAKE. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Prenant. Past, Pris. 



INDICATIVE. 



Present. 

Singular. Plural. 

Prends. Prenons. 

Prends. Prenez. 

Prend. PrennenL 



Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

Prenais. Prenions. 

Prenais. Preniez. 

Prenait. Prenaieni. 





Perfect. Future. 


Pris, etc. 


Prendrai, etc. 




CONDITIONAL, 




Present. 




Prendrais, etc. 




SUBJUNCTIVE. 




Present. Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. Singular. Plural. 


Premie. 


Prenions. Prisse. Prissions 


Prennes. 


Preniez. Prisses. Prissiez. 


Prenne. 


Prennent. Prit. Prissent. 



IMPERATIVE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Prenons. 
Prends. Prenez. 

Prenne. Prennent. 



APPENDIX. M. 259 

verbs conjugated like Prendre. 

Apprendre, to learn. 'Eprendre (s'), to be smitten. 

Comprendre, to comprehend. Meprendre, to mistake. 

Deprendre, to loosen. Rapprendre, to learn again. 

Desapprendre, to unlearn. Reprendre, to rebuke. 

Entr eprendre, to undertake. Surprendre, to surprise. 

PRESCRIRE, to prescribe. See 'Ecrire. 
PRESSENTIR, to foresee. See Senlir. 
PREVALOIR, to prevail. See Valoir. 
PREVENIR, to prevent. See Fenir. 
PREVOIR, to foresee. 

This verb is conjugated like Voir, except that the indicative 
Future is Prevoirai, etc., and the conditional Present, Pri- 
voirais, etc. 

PRODUIRE, to produce. See Conduire. 
PROMETTRE, to promise. See Mettre. 
PROMOUVOIR, to promote. See Mouvoir. 
PROSCRIRE, to proscribe. See 'JScrire. 
PROVENIR, to proceed. See ZVntf. 

QUERIR, to fetch. See Acquerir. 

RABATTRE, to beat down. See Battre. 
RAPPRENDRE, to learn agaln. See Prendre. 
RASSEOIR, to sit down again. See Asseoir. 
RATTEINDRE, to catch again. See AUeindre. 
RAVOIR, to have again. 
Only used in the infinitive. 

REBATTRE, to beat again. See Battre. 
REBOUILL1R, to boil again. See Bouillir. 
RECLURE, to shut up. See Conclure. 
RECONDUIRE, to reconduct. See Conduire. 
RECONNAITRE, to recognize. See Connaitre. 



260 APPENDIX. M. 

RECONQUERIR, to reconquer. See Acqutrir. 
RECONSTRUIRE, to reconstruct. See Conduit 
RECOUDRE, to sew again. See Coudre. 
RECOURIR, to recur. See Courir. 
RECOUVRIR, to recover. See Offrir. 
RECRIRE, to rewrite. See 'Ecrirc. 
RECROITRE, to grow again. See Croitre. 
RECUEILLIR, to collect. See Cueillir. 
REQUIRE, to cook again. See Conduire. 
REDEFAIRE, to undo again. See Faire. 
REDEVENIR, to become again. See Tenir. 
REDIRE, to say again. See Dire. 
REDORMIR, to sleep again. See Sentir. 
REDUIRE, to reduce. See Conduire. 
REFAIRE, to remake. See Faire. 
REFLEQR1R, to flourish again. See Fleurir. 
REFRIRE, to fry again. See Frire. 
REJOINDRE, to rejoin. See Craindre. 
RELIRE, to read again. See Lire. 
RELUIRE, to shine again. See Conduire. 
REMETTRE, to put back. See Mtttre. 
REMOUDRE, to grind again. See Moudre. 
RENAITRE, to be born again. See JYaitre. 
RENDORMIR, to fall asleep again. See Sentir. 
RENDUIRE, to plaster anew. See Conduire. 
RENTRAIRE, to fine-draw. See Traire. 
REPAITRE, to feed. See Connaitre. 
REPARA1TRE, to reappear. See Connaitre. 
REPARTIR, to reply. See Sentir. 
REPEINDRE, to repaint. See Craindre. 
REPENTIR (SE). See Gramm. § 559. 
RE PRENDRE, to retake. See Prendre. 
REPRODUIRE, to reproduce. See Conduire. 
REQUERIR, to require. See Acquerir. 
RESOUDRE, to resolve. 



APPENDIX. M. 



261 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Resolvant. Past, Resolu, Resous (fern. Resoute).* 



INDICATIVE. 



Singular. 
Resous. 
Resous. 
Re'sout. 



Present. 

Plural. 
Resolvons. 
Resolvez. 
Resolvent. 



Perfect. 
Resolus, etc. 



Imperfect. 



Singular. 
Resolvais. 
Resolvais. 
Resolvait. 



Plural. 

Resolvions. 

Resolviez. 

Resolvaient, 



Future. 
Resoudrai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Resoudrais. etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Singular. 
Resolve. 
Resolves. 
Resolve. 



Present. 

Plural. 

Resolvions. 

Resolviez. 

Resolvent. 



Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

Re solus se. Resolussions. 

Resolusses. Resolussiez. 

Resolut. Resolussent. 



IMPERATIVE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Resolvons. 
Resous. Resolvez. 

Resolve. Resolvent. 

The verbs Absoudre, to absolve, and Dissoudre, to dissolve, 
are conjugated like Resoudre, save that they have no perfect 
indicative and imperfect subjunctive, and that their past parti- 

* The form Re'scus is employed only in the sense of changed ; e. g. 
brouillard resous en pluie, a fog resolved (or changed) into a rain. 



262 



APPENDIX. M. 



ciples are always Absous and Dissous, never Absolu and 
Dissolu. The verb Soudre, to solve, is never used save in 
the infinitive. 

RESSENTIR, to feel, resent. See Sentir. 
RESSORT1R, to go out again. See Sentir. 
RESSOUVENIR (SE), to recollect. See Tenir. 
RESTREINDRE, to restrain. See Craindre. 
RETENIR, to retain. See Tenir. 
RETRAIRE, to redeem (an estate). See Traire. 
REVALOIR, to requite. See Valoir. 
REVENIR, to return. See Tenir. 
REVETIR, to invest. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Revetant. Past, Revetu. 



INDICATIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Revets. Revetons. Revetais. Revetions. 

Revets. Revetez. Revetais. Revetiez. 

Revet. Revetent. Revetait. Revetaient. 



Perfect. 



Revetis, etc. 



Future. 
Revetirai, etc 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Rcvetirais, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Revete, etc. Revetisse, etc. 



APPENDIX. M. 263 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. Plural. 

Revetons. 
Revets, Revetez. 

Revete. Revetent. 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Revetir. 

Divetir, to undress. Vitir, to clothe. 

The verb Vetir is seldom, if at all, used in the present par- 
ticiple, the singular number of the present indicative, or of 
the imperative. 

REVIVRE, to revive. See Vivre. 
REVOIR, to see again. See Voir. 

RIRE, TO LAUGH. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Riant. Past, Ri. 







INDICATIVE. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Ris. 


Rions. 


Riais. Riions. 


Ris. 


Riez. 


Riais. Riiez. 


Rit. 


Rient. 


Riait. Riaient. 




Perfect. 


Future. 


Ris, etc. 




Rirai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Rirais, etc. 



264 




APPENDIX. M. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 






Present. 






Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Rie. 


Riions. 




Risse. 


Rissions 


Ries. 


Riiez. 




Risses. 


Rissiez. 


Rie. 


Rient. 




Rit. 


Rissent. 






IMPERATIVE. 






Sin 


Tular. 


Plural. 
Rions. 






Ris. 




Riez. 






Rie. 




Rient. 





So conjugate the verb Sourire, to smile. 

ROMPRE, TO BREAK. 

The only irregularity in this verb and its compounds, Cor- 
rompre, to corrupt, and lnterrompre, to interrupt, is, that they 
take the letter t at the end of the 3d person present indica- 
tive ; e. g. Ro?npt, instead of the regular form, Romp. 

ROUVRIR, to open again. See Offrir. 

SAILLIR, to project. See Assaillir. 
SATISFAIRE, to satisfy. See Faire. 
SAVOIR, to know. 

participles. 
Pres. Sachant. Past, Su. 



Singular. 


Present. 

Plural. 


indicative. 

Singular. 


Imperfect. 

Plural. 


Sais. 
Sais. 
Sail. 


Savons. 

Savez. 

Savent. 


Savais. 
Savais. 
SavaiL 


Savions. 

Saviez. 

Savaient 



AFPENDIX. M. 



265 



Perfect. 



Sus, etc. 



Future. 



Saurai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Saurais, etc. 



Present. 



Sache, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Imperfect. 



Susse, etc. 



IMPERATIVE. 


Singular. 


Plural 




Sachom. 


Sache. 


Sachez. 


Sache. 


Sachent. 



SECOURIR, to succor. See Courir. 
SEDUIRE, to seduce. See Conduire. 
SENTIR, TO FEEL. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Sentant. Past, Senti. 







INDICATIVE. 






Present 




Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Sens, 


Senions. 


Sentais. 


Sentions. 


Sens. 


Sentez. 


Sentais. 


Sentiez. 


Sent. 


Sentent. 


Seniait. 


Sentaient. 




Perfect. 




Future. 


Sentis, etc. 




Sentirai, 


etc. 



23 



266 



APPENDIX. M. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Sentii'ais, etc. 



Singular. 
Sente. 
Sentes. 
Sente. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Sentions. Sentisse. Sentissions. 

Sentiez. Sentisses. Sentissiez. 

Sentent. Sentit. Sentissent. 



IMPERATIVE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Sentons. 
Sens. Sentez. 

Sente. Sentent 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Sentir. 



Consentir, to agree. 
Dementir, to belie. 
Departir, to distribute. 
Desservir, to disserve. 
Dormir, to sleep. 
Endormir, to lull. 
Mentir, to lie. 
Partir, to set out. 
Pressentir, to foresee. 

SEOIR, TO FIT, BECOME. 



Redormir, to sleep again. 
Rendormir, to put to sleep. 
Repartir, to reply.* 
Repp.ntir, to repent. (Gramm. 

§ 559.) 
Ressentir, to feel, resent. 
Ressortir, to go out again.t 
Servir, to serve. 
Sorlir, to go out. 



This verb is never used in the infinitive, and only in the 
following forms : 

* Rcparth-, to distribute, is conjugated regularly. The only dif- 
ference between the infinitives of the two verbs is, that one has an 
acute accent over the c in the first syllable, and the other has not. 

t Rcssortir, to belong to (a jurisdiction), is conjugated regularly. 
There is no difference in the form of the infinitive with these differ- 
ent meanings. 



APPENDIX. M. 267 

part. Pres. Seyant.* 

indic. Pres. 11 sied, lis sieent. 

" Imperf. 11 seyait, Us seyaient. 

" Perf. 11 siera^ Us sieront. 
condit. Pres. 11 sierait, Us sieraient. 

So conjugate Messeoir, to be unbecoming; which, how- 
ever, is seldom used, Seoir, with a negative, being considered 
more elegant. 

SERVIR, to serve. See Sentir. 
SORTIR, to go out. See Sentir. 
SOUDRE, to solve. See Resoudre. 
SOUFFRIR, to suffer. See Offrir. 
SOUMETTRE, to submit. See Mettre. 
SOURDRE, to spring out. 

This verb is used only in the infinitive and in the present 
indicative 3d person, which is Sourd. 
SOURIRE, to smile. See Rire. 
SOUSCRIRE, to subscribe. See 'Ecrire. 
SOUSTRAIRE, to subtract. See Traire. 
SOUTENIR, to sustain. See Tenir. 
SOUVENIR, to remember. See Tenir. 
SUBVENIR, to assist. See Tenir. 
SUFFIRE, to suffice. See Dire. 
SUIVRE, to follow. 







PARTICIPLES. 




Pres. Suivant. 


Past, Suivi. 






INDICATIVE. 




Present. 




Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 




Singular. Plural. 


Suis. 


Suivons. 




Suivais. Suivions. 


Suis. 


Suivez. 




Suivais. Suiviez. 


Suit. 


Suivent. 




Suivait. Suivaient. 



* The forms, Stant, Sis. are participles present and past from an 
obsolete verb Seoir, meaning to be situated or seated. 



268 



APPENDIX. M. 



Perfect. 



Suivisj etc. 



Future. 



Suivrai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Suivrais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present Imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Suive. Suivions. Suivisse. Suivissions. 

Suives. Suiviez. Suivisses. Suivissiez. 

Suive, Suivent. Suivit. Suivissent. 

IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Suis. 
Suive. 



Plural. 
Suivons. 
Suivez. 
Suivent. 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE SuiVre. 

Ensuivre (VJ, to follow from. Poursuivre, to pursue. 

SURCROITRE, to grow out. See Croitre. 
SURF AIRE, to charge too much. See Faire. 
SURPRENDRE, to surprise. See Prendre. 
SURSEOIR, to adjourn, delay. (Used only in law.) 



participles. 



Pres. Sursoyant. 



Past, Sursis. 



INDICATIVE. 



Present. Imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Sursois, etc. Sursoyons, etc. Sursoyais,etc. Sursoyions,eic. 



APPENDIX. M. 



269 



Perfect. 



Sursis, etc 



Future. 
Surseoirai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Surseoirais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Surseoie, etc. Sursoyions, etc. Sursisse, etc. Sursissions, etc. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Surseois. 
Surseoie. 



Plural. 
Sursoyons. 
Sursoyez. 
Surseoient. 



SURVENIR, to happen. See Tenir. 
SURVIVRE, to survive. See Vivre. 

TAIRE, to conceal, See Plaire. 
TEINDRE, to dye. See Craindre. 
TENIR, TO HOLD. 

participles. 
Pres. Tenant, Past, Tenu. 





indicative. 






Present. 


Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. Singular 


Plural. 


Tiens, 


Tenons, Tenais, 


Tenions, 


Tiens, 


Tenez, Tenais, 


Teniez, 


Tient. 


Tiennent, Tenait. 


Tenaient. 



23* 



270 




APPENDIX. M. 






Perfect 




Future. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Tins. 


Tinmes. 


Tiendrai. 


Tiendrons. 


Tins. 


Tintes. 


Tiendras. 


Tiendrez. 


Tint 


Tinrent. 


Tiendra. 
CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Tiendrais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Tiendront. 




Present. 




Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Tienne. 


Tenions. 


Thins se. 


Tinnssions, 


Tiennes. 


Teniez. 


Tinnssts. 


Tinnssiez. 


Tienne. 


Tiennent 


Tint. 

IMPERATIVE. 


Tinnssent. 




Singular. Plural. 








Tenons. 






Tiens. 


Tenez. 






Tienm 


\ Tiennent 





VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Tenir. 



Abstenir (VJ, to abstain. 
Appartenir, to belong. 
Circonvenir, to circumvent. 
Contenir, to contain. 
Contrevenir, to infringe. 
Convenir, to agree. 
DSpr6venir, to free from preju- 
Detenir, to detain. [dice. 

Devenir, to become. 
Disconvenir, to disagree. 
Entretenir, to entertain. 
lntervenir, to intervene. 
Maintenir, to maintain. 
Mtsavenir, to succeed ill. 



Obtenir, to obtain. 
Parvenir, to attain. 
Prevenir, to prevent, prepos- 
Provenir, to proceed. [sess. 
Redevenir, to become again. 
Ressouvenir (se), to remember. 
Retenir, to retain. 
Revenir^ to return. 
Sontcnir, to sustain. 
Souvenir (se), to remember. 
Subvenir, to assist. 
Surve?iir, to happen. 
Venir, to come. 



APPENDIX. M. 271 

TISTRE, TO WEAVE. 

This verb is obsolete in every form but the past part. Tissw, 

TRADUIRE, to translate. See Conduire. 
TRAIRE, to milk. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Trayant. Past, Trait. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Trais, etc. Trayons, etc. Trayais, etc. Trayions, etc. 





Perfect. Future 


(None.) 




Trairai, etc. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Trairais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Singular. 
Traie. 
Traies. 
Traie. 




Plural. 

Trayions. ( None. ) 

Trayiez. 

Traient. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Trayons. 
Trais. Traycz. 



Traie. Traient. 



272 



APPENDIX. M. 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE TrairZ. 



Abstraire, to abstract. 
Distraire, to distract. 
Extraire, to extract. 



Rentraire, to fine-draw. 
Retraire, to redeem (an estate). 
Soustraire, to subtract. 



TRANSCRIRE, to transcribe. See 'Ecrire. 
TRANSMETTRE, to transmit. See Mettre. 
TRESSAILLIR, to start. See Jissaillir. 

VAINCRE, TO VANQUISH. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Vainquant. Past, Vaincu. 



INDICATIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Vaincs. Vainquons. Vainquais. Vainquions. 

Vaincs. Vainquez, Vainquais. Vainquiez. 

Vainc. Vainquent. Vainquait. Vainquaient. 



Perfect. 
Vainquis, etc. 



Future. 
Vaincrai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Vainer ais, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Vainque, etc Vainquisse, etc. 

IMPERATIVE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Vainquons. 
Vaincs. Vainquez. 

Vainque. Vainquent. 



APPENDIX. M. 



273 



So conjugate Convaincre^ to convince. — The three singu- 
lar persons of the present indicative of Vaincre are seldom 
used. The same is true of the whole of the imperfect indi- 
cative. 

VALOIR, TO BE WORTH. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Valant. Past, Valu. 





INDICATIVE. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Singular. Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Vaux. Valons. 


Valais. Valions, 


Vaux. Valez. 


Valais. Valiez. 


Vaut. Talent. 


Valait. Valaient. 


Perfect. 


Future. 


Valus, etc. 


Vaudrai, etc. 




CONDITIONAL. 




Present. 




Vaudrais, etc. 




STJBJUNCTLVE. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Singular. Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Vaille. Valions. 


Valusse. Valussions 


Vailles. Valiez. 


Valusses. Valussiez. 



Vaille. 



Vaillent. 



Valut. 



Valussent. 



IMPERATIVE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Valons. 
Vaux. Valez. 

Vaille. Vaillent. 



274 



APPENDIX. M. 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Vahir. 

'Equivaloir, to be equivalent. Revaloir, to requite. 
Prevaloir, to prevail.* 

VENLR, to come. See Tenir. 
VETIR, to clothe. See Revetir. 
VIVRE, to live. 

participles. 
Pres. Vivant. Past, Vecu. 



Singular. 
Fts, etc. 

Vecus, etc. 



INDICATIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Vivons, etc. Vivais, etc. Virions, etc. 



Perfect. 



Future. 



Vivrai, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Vivrais, etc. 



Present. 



Vive, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Imperfect. 
Vecusse, etc. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Singular. 

Vis. 
Vive. 



Plural. 
Vivons. 
Vivez. 
Vi vent. 



* The verb Prdvaloir, however, differs from Valoir in the present 
subjunctive, which is as follows ; Private, Pre" vales, Prtratc, Priva- 
tions. Prevalicz, Prevalent. 



APPENDIX. M. 



275 



VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Vivre. 

Revivre, to revive. Survivre, to survive. 



VOIR, TO SEE. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Voyctnt. Past, Vu. 



Present. 


INDICATIVE. 


Imperfect. 


Plural. 


Singular 


Plural. 


Voyons. 

Voyez. 

Voient. 


Voyais. 
Voyais. 
Voyait. 


Voyions. 

Voyiez. 

Voyaient, 


Perfect. 




Future. 




Verrai, etc. 




CONDITIONAL. 






Present. 






Verrais, etc. 






SUBJUNCTIVE. 




Present. 




Imperfect. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Voyions. 


Visse. 


Vissions. 


Voyiez. 


Visses. 


Vissiez. 


Voient. 


Vit. 

IMPERATIVE. 


Vissent. 


Singular. Plural. 




Voyons. 
Vois. Voyez. 
Voie. Voient. 





VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Voir. 

Entrevoir, to have a glimpse of. Revoir, to see again. 



276 



APPENDIX. M. 



VOULOIR, TO BE WILLING. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Voulant. Past, Voulu. 

INDICATIVE. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Veux. 


Voulons. 


Voulais. Voulions. 


Veux. 


Voulez. 


Voulais. Vouliez. 


Veut. 


Veulent. 


Voulait. Voulaient. 




Perfect. 


Future. 


Voulus, etc 




Voudrai, etc. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
Voudrais, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Veuille. 


Voulions 


Voulus se. Voulussions 


Veuilles. 


Vouliez. 


Voulusses. Voulussiez. 


Veuille. 


Veuilleni 


\ Voulut. Voulussent. 



There is no imperative mood. At least there is but a sin- 
gle form, employed in the expression veuillez-bien, be so good 
as to. 

Y AVOIR, there be. See Gramm. § 552. 



APPENDIX. N. 



277 



N. (§ 596.) 

I. ADVERBIAL EXPRESSIONS WITH que, WHICH REQUIRE THE 
INDICATIVE MODE. 



A cause que, because. 

A ce que, according as. 

A la charge que, on condition 

that. 
A mesure que, in proportion as. 
A peine-que, hardly-when. 
Ainsi que, as, as well as. 
Aprhs que, when. 
Attendu que, since, while. 
Au lieu que, whereas. 
Aussi Men que, as well as. 
Aussi loin que, as far as. 
Aussi long-temps que, as long as. 
Aussitdt que, as soon as. 
Autant que^as far as. 
D'abord que, as soon as. 
D'autant que, whereas. 
D' autant plus que, so much the 

more as. 
De mime que, even as. 



Depuis que, since. 

Des que, as soon as. 

D'oii vient que? why is it that ? 

En tant que, as. 

Lorsque, when. 

Outre que, besides that. 

Parceque, because. 

Pendant que, while. 

Peut-etre que, perhaps. 

Puisque, since. 

Selon que, according as. 

Sinon que, except that, unless. 

Sitot que, as soon as. 

Suivant que, according as. 

Tandis que, while. 

Tant que, as long as. 

Tout que, for all that. 

Toutes les fois que, whenever. 

Vu que, seeing that. 



II. ADVERBIAL EXPRESSIONS WITH que, WHICH REQUIRE THE 
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



A Dieu ne plaise que, God for- 
bid. 
A moins que, unless.* 
Afin que, in order that. 
Au cas que, in case. 
Avant que, before. 
Bien que, although. 
Bien entendu que, provided. 
Ce rtest pas que, not that. 
De crainte que* for fear that. 



De peur que,* for fear that. 
Dieuveuille que, God grant that. 
En cas que f in case that. 
Encore que, although. 
Jusqifa ce que, until. 
Loin que, far from. 
Malgre que, notwithstanding. 
Moyennant que, provided that. 
Non obstant que, notwithstand- 
ing that. 



* The adverbial expressions marked above with an asterisk always 
require the negative ne before the subjunctive following; e. g. a 
moins quit nc lefasse, unless he does it, de crainte qu'iis ne vicnncnt, 
for fear they should come. (Comp. App. O. § XVI. c. d.) 

24 



278 APPENDIX. O. 

Plaise or plut a Dieu que, Quoique, although. 

please God that. Sans que, without. 

Pos6 or posez le cas que, sup- Si ce tfestque, if it be not that. 

pose that. Soit que, whether. 

Pour peu que, however little. Suppose, supposons, or suppo- 
Pour que, in order that. sez que, suppose that. 

Pourvu que, provided that. Taut s^enfaut que, so far from. 

The following adverbial expressions : a condition que, on 
condition that, de maniere que, so that, de sorte que, so that, 
en sorte que, so that, tellement que, so that, and perhaps some 
few others, require the indicative or the subjunctive, accord- 
ing as certainty is or is not denoted. 



O. (§§652,685.) 

PRINCIPLES OF INTERROGATION AND NEGATION* 

I. Interrogation. 

§ I. The various grammatical principles which regulate in- 
terrogation in French have already been pretty fully stated. 
Little else is demanded here, therefore, than to designate, for 
connected examination, the sections of the Grammar which 
relate to this subject. These are §§ 190, 287 (with the note), 
290, 458, 461, 636, 652, 667, 668, 670. 

§ II. The impersonal verb il y a is rendered interrogative 
in its form by merely putting the pronoun last (the adverb y 
keeping its place before the word a,) and inserting the letter t 
whenever it becomes requisite in conformity with the principle 
in § 190 of the Grammar ; e. g. y a-t-il 1 is there ? y avait- 
il? was there ? y aura-l-il ? will there be ? etc. 

II. Negation. 

§ I. The French commonly make use of two negatives to 
express our one. The words ne pas are those most frequently 
employed. 



APPENDIX. O. 279 

§ II. When the two negatives are used with a simple tense 
of a verb (and thus, of course, when used with the imperative 
mode), the first comes before the verb and the other after it ; 
e. g. je nefrappe pas, I do not strike, il ne vient pas, he does 
not come, ne badinez pas, do not jest. The first negative al- 
ways precedes the verb immediately, except in the cases in- 
stanced in §§ 468, 469 of the Grammar. 

§ III. When the two negatives are used with a compound 
tense of a verb, the first comes before the auxiliary and the 
other after it ; e. g. je rfai pas frappe, I have not struck, il 
rCa pas parle, he has not spoken. The first negative always 
precedes the auxiliary immediately, except in the cases men- 
tioned in §§ 468, 469 of the Grammar. 

§ IV. When the two negatives are used with the infinitive 
mode of a verb, both negatives generally come before the verb, 
though sometimes one before and one after; e.g. ne pas par- 
ler, not to speak, pour ne voir pas, in order not to see. 

§ V. The negative adverb "point is often used instead of pas , 
and is considered as a stronger negative : e. g. je n'ai pas 
d' 'argent, I have no money, je n^ai point d* argent, I have no 
money at all ; il ne lit pas, he does not read, il ne lit point, 
he does not read at all. 

§ VI. The negative adverb point can never be used instead 
of pas when another adverb or a numeral adjective follows 
immediately. E. g. point could not be used in the following 
phrases : je ne vois pas souvent votrefrere, I do not often see 
your brother, vous ii'avez pas beaucoup d?arbres fruitier s, you 
have not many fruit-trees, Milton n'est pas moins sublime qv? 
Homere, Milton is not less sublime than Homer, il rty a pas 
dix ans, it is not ten years ago. 

§ VII. In asking a question, point is often used if we have a 
real doubt in our minds, and pas if we are persuaded of the 
affirmative ; e. g. n^avez-vous point eU la ? is it true that you 
have not been there ? tfavez-vous pas ete la ? you have been 
there ; have you not ? 



280 APPENDIX. O. 

§ VIII. Neither pas nor point can be used when either of 
ihe adverbs, jamais, never, ever,* guhre or guhres, hardly, and 
nullement or aucunement, not at all, follows the verb ; e. g. il 
ne faut jamais se fier aux medians, one should never trust 
wicked persons, il ri 1 a jamais vu son per e, he has never seen 
his father, il n'a guhre de voix, he has hardly any voice, il 
ri*y a guhre de gens tout-a-fait disinter esses, there are hardly 
any people entirely disinterested,^ ne le souffrirai nullement, 
I will not suffer it at all, il n'est nullement instruit de cette af- 
faire, he is not at all acquainted with that matter, je n'en veux 
aucunement, I want none of it. 

§ IX. Neither pas nor point can be used when the adverb 
plus follows the verb, in the sense of again or in addition ; 
e. g. je ne le verrai plus, I will see him no more,^ n'en veux 
plus, I want no more.f 

§ X. Neither pas nor point can be used when the substan- 
tive goutte follows the verb voir, or when mot, without an arti- 
cle or numeral adjective, follows the verb dire, or when brin, 
without an article or numeral adjective, follows any verb; e. g. 
il ne voit goutte, he does not see at all, je ne disais mot, I 
said not a word, il rCy en a brin, there is not a sprig of it.J 

§ XI. Neither pas nor point can be used when either of the 
indefinite pronouns, aucun, any or any one, nul, no or no one, 
personne, nobody, and rien, nothing, occurs, either after the 

* When the adverb jamais is used without ne it signifies ever; e. g. 
avez-vous jamais rien vu de si beau? have you ever seen any thing so 
beautiful ? si vous venez jamais me voir, if you ever come to see me. 

t When plus occurs after a verb as the sign of the comparative 
degree, a double negative is employed ; e. g. je ne veux pas de plus 
belle que la vdtre, I do not want any finer than yours, il ne s'y en 
trouve pas de plus belle, there is no finer to be seen there. 

X But pas must be used when an article or numeral occurs before 
mot or brin ; e. g. il ne dit pas un mot qui m'inte'resse, he does not say 
a word which interests me, il na pas un brin de bois pour sc chauffer, 
he has not a stick of wood to warm himself with. 



APPENDIX. O. 281 

verb or, as its nominative, before it ; e. g.je ne connais aucun 
de vos juges, I know no one of your judges, il ne ni'a rendu 
aucuns soins, he has not rendered me any attentions, il rCa 
nulle exactitude, he has no exactness, nul n'en sera excepte, no 
one will be excepted, je ne connais personne, I know nobody, 
je n'ai vu personne, I saw nobody, personne ne sera assez hardi, 
no one will be bold enough, c'est un homme qui rtaime rien, 
he is a man who loves nothing, je n'ai rien dit, I said nothing, 
rien ne me plait davantage, nothing pleases me more.* 

§ XII. Neither pas nor point can be used in the same 
clause with quelconque, qui que ce soit, quoi que ce soit, or 
qui employed instead of qui esUce qui ; e. g. il n'a mal quel- 
conque, he has no ailment, je rCy ai trouve qui que ce soit, I 
found nobody there, il ne peut reussir en quoi que ce soit, 
he cannot succeed in anything, qui {qui est-ce qui) ne voii 
que vous avez raison ? who does not see that you are right ? 

§ XIII. It is commonly the case that neither pas nor point 
is used after the verbs cesser, oser, pouvoir, and savoir ; e. g. 
il ne cesse de se rendre ridicule, he does not cease to render 
himself ridiculous, on n'ose vous le dire, they dare not tell it 
to you, nous ne pouvons y pensir sans fr emir, we cannot think 
of it without shuddering. 

§ XIV. Both pas and point are suppressed in the following 
negative expressions : gardez-qu'on ne vous voie, take care 
that they do not see you, ne bougez, do not stir ; and in such 
as : y a-t-il un homme dont elle ne medise, is there a man 
whom she does not slander ? avez-vous un ami qui ne soit des 
miens ? have you a friend who is not also mine ? 

§ XV. Both pas and point are suppressed before the pre- 
position de used in describing a space of time ; e. g. je ne lux 
parlerai de ma vie, I will not speak to him during my life. 

* It will be noticed that, in the examples given in this section, au- 
cun and personne, when used with a verb in a compound tense, are 
placed after the participle, instead of before it like rien. The case is 
always thus with these pronouns. 

24* 



282 APPENDIX. O. 

§ XVI. Both pas and point are suppressed after the con- 
junction que in the following cases : 

(a.) When que is employed to express the English why in 
a question ; e. g. que rfallez-vous la voir ? why do you not 
go to see her ? 

(b.) When que signifies but or only ; e. g. il tfest quepauv- 
re, he is only poor, its n'ont que peu de Men, they have but 
little property. 

(e.) When que, either alone or with a moins, signifies un- 
less, and the expression is not of a negative form in English ; 
e. g. je ne lui ecrirai pas quHl ne m'envoye mes livres, I will 
not write to him unless he sends me my books, a moins quHl 
ne vienne, unless he comes. 

(d.) When que may be translated lest, and the expression 
is not of a negative form in English ; e. g. de crainie qtfil ne 
vienne, for fear lest he come, de peur quHl rfaille, lest he 
should go, il craint que sa recolte ne soil gatee, he fears lest 
his crop should be spoiled, fapprehende que lajievre ne revi- 
enne, I have apprehension lest the fever should return, je 
tremble qiCh mon retour je nHmmole et toi et ton ami perfide, 
I tremble lest at my return I should sacrifice both thyself 
and thy treacherous friend.* 

(e.) When que is preceded by a word of comparison, such 
as plus, moins, mieux, autre, auirement ; e. g. elle est plus 
riche que vous ne pensiez, she is richer than you thought, il 
est mieux qiCil n'ttait, he is better than he was, il est fail tout 
autrement que vous ne croyez, he is made up very differently 
from what you think. 

(f.) When que is preceded by the impersonal verb il y a 
or by void, in speaking of length of time ; e. g. il y a trois 

* When the expression is of a negative form in English, either in 
this case or in the one mentioned in the preceding paragraph (c), 
tico negatives must be employed in French; e.g. jc trains qiiil ne 
vienncpas, I fear he will not come, a moins quit ne vicnne pas, un- 
less he does not come, etc. 



APPENDIX. O. 283 

jours que vous rtavez mange, it is three days since you have 
eaten, void cinq nuits queje tfaiferme Vazil, for five nights I 
have not closed my eyes. 

(g.) When que is preceded by the expression c'est dom- 
mage ; e. g. c'est dommage quHl nefit cela, it is a pity that he 
did not do that. 

§ XVII. Both pas and point are suppressed when the con- 
junction ni occurs directly after the verb ; e.g. je ne chante 
ni ne danse, I neither dance 4ior sing, je ne suis ni democrate 
ni aristocrate, I am neither democrat nor aristocrat, je ne le 
dirai ni a Vun ni a V autre, I will not tell it to either. 

§ XVIII. Both pas and point are suppressed after the con- 
junction si when it can be rendered unless in English ; e. g. 
il rtenfera rien s*il ne veut, he will do nothing about it unless 
he pleases, il viendra a lout de cette affaire si les puissances 
ne s^y opposent, he will accomplish this matter if the powers 
do not make opposition. 

§ XIX. The negative non is generally used for the 
English adverb no, in answer to a question or otherwise, but 
sometimes non pas or point is used for more emphasis ; e. g. 
croyez-vous cela J Non (or Non pas) ! do you believe that ? 
No ! irez-vous ce soir au pare ? Point ! shall you go this 
evening to the park ? No ! Je croyais avoir affaire a un hon- 
nete homme ; mats point, I thought I had to do with an honest 
man ; but no. 

§ XX. The negative pas is generally used alone to qualify an 
adjective or another, adverb ; e. g. pas un seul, not one, pas 
beaucoup, not much, pas lien, not well. 

§ XXI. The English conjunctive expression not that is ren- 
dered in French by non que, or, more emphatically, by non pas 
que ; e. g. non que nous soyons ennemis, mais nos humeurs ne 
s^accordent pas, not that we are enemies, but our dispositions 
do not harmonize, non pas que je ha'isse la societi, not that I 
hate society. 

§ XXII. The French negative ne is used alone in some in- 



284 



APPENDIX. P. 



stances where no negative appears in English. This is al- 
ways the case in the instances which come under the rule in 
§ XVI, c, above. In regard to the cases mentioned in § XVI, 
d,e, the principle is as follows : When the verb preceding is 
affirmative, or interrogative with a negation, ne must be used, 
but not when the first verb is negative or interrogative without 
negation ; e. g. fapprehende qu?il ne vienne, I apprehend he 
will come, n ) appre'hendez-vous pas quHl ne vienne ? do you 
not apprehend that he will come ? je rtapprehende pas qiCil 
vienne, I do not apprehend that he will come, apprehendez- 
vous quHl vienne ? do you apprehend that he will come ? 



P. (§686.) ■ 

USE OF THE PREPOSITIONS d and de BEFORE INFINITIVES AND 
SUBSTANTIVES. 

I. The following verbs require the preposition a after them 
before an infinitive, and those which are printed in Italics re- 
quire it also before a substantive which they govern : 



s'Abandonner 

Aboutir 

s'Accoutumer 

Admettre 

s^Adonner 

Adherer 

Aider 

Aimer 

Applaudir 

s'Appliqiier 

Apprendre 

Appreter 

s'Appreter 

s'Arreter 

Assigner 

s'Attacher 

s'Altendre 



Autoriser 

Chercher 

Compatir 

Condamner 

Condescendre 

Consister 

Contrevenir 

Contribuer 

Convier 

Demeurer 

Ddplaire 

De'sobh'r 

Destiner 

Determiner 

Disposer 

Donner 

Dresser 



Eclairer 

Encourager 

s'Endurcir 

Engager 

s' Engager 

Enhardir 

Enseigner 

Exciter 

Exercer 

Exhorter 

s'Exposer 

se Ficr 

Habituer 

s^Habituer 

Inciter 

Incliner 

Ins idler 



Inviter 

Jouer (to game) 

se Mdtre 

Montrer 

Nuire 

Obeir 

Obvier 

s' Obstiner 

s'Occuper 

s' Opinidtrer 

5' Opposer 

Parvenir 

Penser 

Perdre 

Per sister 

se Plaire 

Porter 



APPENDIX. P. 



285 



Pour voir 
Pousser 
Prtceder 
Presenter 



Pretendre 
Renoncer 
Resist er 
Ressembler 



Rester 
Satisfaire 
Subvenir 
Survivre 



Tendre 

Trctvailhr 

Viser. 



II. The following verbs require the preposition de after them 
before an infinitive, and those printed in Italics require it also 
before a substantive : 



Abuser 


Convaincre 


s'Empresser 


se Lasser 


s'Abstenir 


Convenir 


Enjoindre 


Louer 


s'Accommoder 


Craindre 


s'Ennuyer 


Mander 


s'Acquiiter 


Decharger 


s' Enorgueillir 


Manquer 


Affliger 


Decourager 


Enrager 


Medire 


s'Affiiger 


Defend re 


Entre prendre 


Med iter 


s y Apercevoir 


se Defter 


Epouvanter 


se Mefier 


Apprehender 


Degouter 


Essayer 


se Meier 


$' Appro cher 


se Demettre 


s'Etonner 


Menacer 


Approuver 


se Depecher 


Excuser 


Me r iter 


Arreter 


se Desaccoutu- 


Exempter 


se Moquer 


Attendrir 


mer 


Exiger 


Negliger 


Attrister 


Desesperer 


Feindre 


Notifier 


s'Attrister 


se Deshabituer 


Finir 


OfFrir 


Avertir 


se Desister 


se Flatter 


Omettre 


s'Aviser 


Determiner 


se Garder 


Ordonner 


Blamer 


Dire 


Gener 


Oublier 


Censurer 


Disconvenir 


Gronder 


Pardon ner 


Cesser 


Dispenser 


Hair 


Parler 


Chagriner 


Divertir 


se Hater 


Permettre 


se Chagriner 


Douter 


Hesiter 


Persuader 


Charger 


Ecrire 


s^lmpatienter 


Pester 


se Charger 


Edifier 


sUndigner 


se Piquer 


Choisir 


s'Efforcer 


s"* Informer 


Plaindre 


Commander 


EfTrayer 


s'lngh-er 


se Plaindre* 


Conclure 


s^Emanciper 


s'Inquieter 


Plaire 


Conjurer 


Embarrasser 


Inspirer 


Precipiter 


Conseiller 


s'Emparer 


Jouir 


se Pre'cipiter 


se Consoler 


Empecher 


Jurer 


Prescrire 


Contraindre 


s'Empecher 


Justifier 


Presser 



* Se plaindre requires the preposition de before what is complained 
of, and a before the individual to whom complaint is made ; e.g. se 
plaindre de quelque chose a quelqu'un^ to complain of something lo 



some one. 



286 



APPENDIX. P. 



Pr^sumer 

Professer 

Prqfiter 

Promettre 

Proposer 

se Rebuter 

Recornmander 

Redouter 

Refuser 

Rejouir 



se Rejouir 

Remercier 

se Repentir 

Re prendre 

Reprimander 

Reprocher 

Resoudre 

se Ressouvenir 

Retenir 

se Retenir 



se Retracter 
se Rire 
se Saisir 
Scandaliser 
se Scandaliser 
se Servir 
Sommer 
se Soncier 
Soupgonner 
se Souvenir 



Suffire 

Suggerer 

Supplier 

Surprendre 

Susciter 

Tromper 

Troubler 

User 

se Vanter. 



III. The following verbs take either a or de before an in- 
finitive, generally according to euphony: 

Commencer Couter Forcer Obliger 

Continuer s'Efforcer Manquer* Tacher.f 

Contraindre Essayer 

IV. The following verbs allow no preposition after them 
before an infinitive or substantive which they govern : 



Aimer mieux 


Desirer 


Fa ire 


Savoir 


Confesser 


Entendre 


s'Imaginer 


Souhaiter 


Croire 


Devoir 


Laisser 


Voir 


Declarer 


Envoyer 


Pretendre 


Vouloir. 


De poser 


Esperer 


Reconnaitre 





V. The following verbs allow no preposition after them be- 
fore an infinitive which they govern : 

Aller Oser Paraitre Valoir mieux 

Daigner Ou'ir Sembler Venir. 

Falloir 



VI. The following adjectives, when used with etre, require a 
after them before an infinitive : 



Admirable 
Adroit 



Afire ux 
Agile 



Agreable 

Aise 



Ardent 
Assidu 



* Manqucr requires de when it means to fall, and a when it means 
to forget. 

t Tacker generally requires de ; but sometimes, when it means to 
aim at, it requires a ; e. g. il tachc a, me nuire, he aims to injure me. 







APPENDIX. P. 




Beau 


Doux 




Hideux 


Premier 


Bon 


Effroyable 


Honnete 


Pret 


Charmant 


Enclin 




Horrible 


Prompt 


Civil 


Exact 




Incivil 


Propre 


Dernier 


Facile 




Lent 


Second 


Diligent 


Habile 




Malhonnete 


Sujet 


Dispose 


Hardi 




Porte 


Terrible. 



287 



VII. The following adjectives, when used with eire, require 
de after them before an infinitive : 



Aise 


Curieux 


Incapable 


Mecontent 


Assure 


Digne 


Incertain 


Ravi 


Avide 


Ennuye 


Indigne 


Satisfait 


Capable 


Fache 


Joyeux 


Sur. 


Certain 


Fatigue 


Las 




Content 


Honteux 







VIII. The following substantives, in all cases, require de 
before an infinitive : 

Action 

Adresse 

Ambition 

Amitie 

Amour 

Ardeur 

Arrogance 

Art 

Artifice 

Assurance 

Attente 

Attention 

Audace 

Autorite 

Avantage 

Avidite 

Avis 

Bonheur 

Bonte 

Chagrin 

Choix 

Cceur 



Commodite 


Fermete 


Maitre 


Confusion 


Fierte 


Mal-adresse 


Conseil 


Force 


Malheur 


Constance 


Front 


Malice 


Contrainte 


Fureur 


Maniere 


Courage 


Glorie 


Mortification 


Curiosite 


Grace 


Motif 


Danger 


Habitude 


Moyen 


Depit 


Hardiesse 


Nature 


Deplaisir 


Hasard 


Necessite 


Desespoir 


Honnetete 


Obligation 


Desir 


Honte 


Ordre 


Durete 


Imprudence 


Orgueil 


EfFronterie 


Impudence 


Passion 


Embarras 


Impuissance 


Patience 


Envie 


Incommodite 


Peine 


Esperance 


Inquietude 


Plaisir 


Espoir 


Insolence 


Pourvoir 


Esprit 


Intention 


Precaution 


Facilite 


Jugement 


Pr/somption 


Fa^on 


Justice 


Puissance 


Faveur 


Liberte 


Rage 



288 APPENDIX. P. 

Risque Satisfaction Souci Vanite 

Ruse Scandale Temerite Volonte. 

Sagesse 

So also in general all substantives which do not imply wil- 
lingness or unwillingness, fitness or unfitness. 

IX. The following substantives, used with avoir without 
an article, require de before an infinitive : 

Affaire Dessein Occasion Soin 

Besoin Droit Permission Sujet 

Cong6 Envie Raison Tort. 

Coutume Lieu 



SELECTIONS 



FROM THE 



CLASSIC LITERATURE 



FRANCE; 



WITH EXPLANATORY NOTES, 



VOCABULARY 



BY 

DAVID FOSDICK, JR. 



ANDOVER: 

PUBLISHED BY GOULD, NEWMAN <& SAXTON. 

NEW YORK: 

CORNER OF FULTON AND NASSAU STS, 

1840. 



SELECTIONS 



FRENCH LITERATURE, 



PART I. PROSE. 



Amourde la patrie. 

Un Romain, nomme Rutilius, ayant ete banni injustement, 
uo de ses amis, pour le 1 consoler, lui 2 dit qu'il s'eleverait bien- 
tot dans Rome une guerre civile, a la faveur de laquelle il pour- 
rait 3 etre rappele : " Que t'ai-je done fait," lui repondit 4 Rutili- 
us, "pour me souhaiter un retour plus triste encore que mon 
exil." 



Obscurite d u style. 

Le philosophe Favorin dit a un jeune orateur, qui afFectait 
une grande obscurite dans son style et se servait 5 de termes 
anciens et inusites : 6 u Si vous ne voulez pas etre entendu, qui 
vous empeche de vous taire." 7 



Avarice. 

L'abbe Regnier, 8 secretaire de l'Academie Francaise, y fai- 
sait un jour dans son chapeau la collecte d'une pistole que 
chaque membre devait 9 fournir pour une depense commune. 
Get abbe, croyant que le president Rose, 10 homme fort avare, 
n'avait pas mis dans le chapeau, le lui 11 presenta une seconde 
fois. Le president protesta qu'il avait donne. " Je le crois," 
dit 1 " 2 l'abbe Regnier, u mais je ne Tai point 13 vu." "Et moi," 14 

1 § § 401 , 460. — 2 § § 402, 460. — 3 App. M. — 4 § 286. — 5 recip. 
verb.— 6 § 348.— 7 recip. verb.— 8 § 221.— 9 § 660, and App. P. IV. 
— l0 § 221.— " § 464. — 12 § 286. — 13 App. O. II. $ V. — i4 § 400. 



292 SELECTIONS FROM 

ajouta 1 M. de Fontenelle, qui etait a c6te, "je Pai vu, mais je 
ne le crois pas." 



Si n c e r i te . 

Le grand Alexandre dit, un jour, a Pun de ses ministres qui 
Pavait long-temps 2 servi : P Je ne suis point satisfait de vous ; 
ear je suis homme, et je sais que, comme tel, je suis sujet a 
Perreur et a l'oubli, et cependant vous ne m'avertissez jamais 
de mes defauts. Si vous ne vous apercevez 3 pa-s plus que moi 
de 4 mes fautes, c'est ignorance ; si vous vous en apercevez 
et que vous me le cachiez, 5 c'est trahison." 



Fermete d'esprit. 

Le celebre Fabert, se disposant a 6 faire le siege d'une ville, 
montrait les dehors de cette place avec un doigt, pour indiquer 
Pendroit par ou il faudrait 7 Pattaquer. Un coup de mousquet 
lui 8 emporta ce doigt. II parut n'y 9 pas faire 10 attention : 
"Messieurs," continua-t-il, sans la moindre emotion, "je vous 
disais done qu'il serait bon de dinger vos batteries sur ce point ; " 
«t il indiquait d'un autre doigt la merne partie de la place. 



Amour Filial. 

Une dame Romaine fut condamnee 11 a mort, et livree au 
bourreau pour etre etranglee dans la prison. Cet homme, 
touche 12 de ses larmes, ne put 13 se resoudre a lui arracher la 
vie, et l'abandonna dans le cachot, persuade qu'elle y motir- 
rait bientot de faim. II laissait 14 entrer librement la fille de 
cette infortunee, en 15 s'assurant neantnoins qu'elle n'apportait 
point de vivres. Cependant il 16 s'ecoulait du temps. Le 
bourreau, surpris que la prisonniere 17 existat encore, se mit a 
observer sa fille avec plus d'attention. II ne tarda point a re- 
connaitre, avec autant ]8 d'attendrissement que d'admiration, 

1 § 286. — 2 § 679. — 3 recip. verb. — 4 App. P. II. — 5 § 597. — 
• App. P. 1. — 7 § 655. — 8 § § 402, 460. — 9 § 477. — 10 $ 238. — 
n § 571. — 12 § 570. — 13 App. O. $ XIII. — 14 App. P. IV. — 
A § 567. — 16 il, there. — 17 § 591. — 18 § 252. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 293 

que cette gen^reuse fille allaitait sa mere pour lui prolonger sa 
vie. Dans son enthousiasme, il alia tout raconter au magistrat. 
On 1 courut aussitot en 2 foule a la prison; on en 3 emporta la 
mere et la fille en triomphe ; et le peuple 4 Romain, juste 5 re- 
munerateur de la vertu, fit 6 grace a l'une, et assigna a 1'autre 
une pension considerable 7 sur le tresor public. 8 



M o d e s t i e de P 1 a t o n . 

Platon, voulant 9 voir les jeux Olympiques, se rendit 10 a 
l'Olympie, ou il logea avec des 11 personnes qui ne le connais- 
saient pas. II leur 12 pint par ses man teres et par son entre- 
tien, sans se decouvrir 13 a eux. Apres la celebration des jeux, 
ils vinrent le visiter a Athenes, ou il les recut avec ces facons 
aimables 14 qui distinguent les vrais 15 sages. Alors ses botes 
lui dirent : " Faites-nous 16 voir, s'il vous plait, ce disciple de 
Socrate, qui porte le meme nom que vous (car il leur avait (lit 
qu'il se nommait Platon), et dont 17 la renommee fait partout 
tant de 18 bruit. Menez-nous 19 a son tcole, et presentez-nous 
a lui, afin que 20 nous retirions quelque fruit de sa conversation." 
" C'est 21 moi-meme," leur repondit Platon, avec un sourire mo- 
deste. Ces etrangers emporterent de lui une bien plus grande 
idee, que si, des le premier moment, il s'etait annonce pour ce 
qu'il etait, avec 22 empbase et pretention. Si vous voulez vous 
faire aimer, et si vous desirez que I'on vous rende 23 justice, 
laissez oublier aux autres que vous etes homme de 24 merite et 
de reputation. lis ne seront jamais plus portes a vous estimer 
et a vous vanter, que lorsque vous leur en 25 abandonnerez en- 
tierement le soiri. 



Exageration. 

Mademoiselle du Plessis nous honore souvent 26 de sa pre- 
sence. Elle disait hier a table qu'en Basse-Bretagne on fai- 
sait une cbere admirable, et qu' aux noces de sa belle-sceur on 

i § 386. — 2 § 237. — 3 § 477. — * § 340. — 5 § 221. — 6 § 238. 
_ 7 § 343 _ 8 § 344 _ 9 App F 1V _ io recip# verb .__n § 246. 

— 13 § 412. — 13 § 563. — 14 § 343. — 15 § 347. — 16 App. P. IV. — 
w § 425. — 1S § 252. — 19 § 462. — «> App. N. — 21 § 645. — « §237. 

_ 23 § 59K _ 24 § 253. _ 2o § 4G6 . __ 26 5 678> 
25* 



294 SELECTIONS FROM 

avait mange pour un jour douze cents pieces de roti. Nous 
demeurames tous 1 comme des gens de 2 pierre. Je pris cou- 
rage et lui dis : " Mademoiselle, pensez-y bien ; n'est-ce point 
douze pieces de roti que vous voulez dire ? On se trompe quel- 
quefois." " Non, madame, c'est douze cents pieces, ou onze cents. 
Je ne veux pas vous assurer si c'est onze ou douze, de peur de 
mentir; mais enfin je sais bien que c'est l'un ou l'autre." Elie 
le repeta vingt fois, et n'en voulut jamais rabattre un seul 
poulet. Nous trouvames qu'il fallait qu'ils fussent 3 pour le 
moms trois cents piqueurs pour piquer menu, et que le lieu 
fut 4 un grand pre, ou 5 l'on eut fait dresser des tentes, et que, 
s'ils n'eussent ete que cinquante, il fallait qu'ils eussent com- 
mence un mois auparavant. Ce propos de table etait bon ; 
vous en auriez ete contente. N'avez-vous point quelque ex- 
agereuse comme celle-la ? (Mme. de Sevigne'.) 



Boileau et un Jesuit e. 

'A propos de Corbinelli, il m'ecrivit Pautre jour un fort joli 
billet. 11 me rendait compte d'une conversation et d'un diner 
chez M. de Lamoignon. Les acteurs etaient les maitres du 
logis, M. de Troyes, M. de Toulon, le pere Bourdaloue, son 
compagnon, Despreaux, et Corbinelli. On parla des ouvrages 
des anciens et des modernes. Despreaux sotuint les anciens, 
a la reserve d' un seul moderne, qui surpassait, a son gout, et les 
vieux et les nouveaux. Le compagnon du Bourdaloue, qui 
faisait I'entendu 6 et qui s'etait attache a Despreaux et a Cor- 
binelli, lui demanda quel 7 etait done ce livre si distingue dans 
son esprit. Despreaux ne voulut pas lui dire. Corbinelli se 
joint au Jesuite, et conjure Despreaux de nommer ce livre, 
afin de le lire toute la nuit. Despreaux lui repondit en riant : 
" Ah ! monsieur, vous l'avez lu plus d'une fois, j'en suis as- 
sure." Le Jesuite reprend avec un air dedaigneux, et presse 
Despreaux de nommer cet auteur si merveilleux. Despreaux 
lui dit : " Mon pere, ne me pressez 8 point." Le pere continue. 
Enfin, Despreaux le prend par le bras, et, le serrant bien fort, 
lui dit : "Mon pere, vous le voulez ; he bien, morbleu ! c'est 
Pascal." — "Pascal," dit le pere, tout rouge, tout etonne, " Pas- 

1 § 325. — 2 § 253. — 3 § 593. — 4 § 593. -- 5 § 191. — 6 faisait 
Ventendu, pretended to be very knowing. — 7 § 432. — 8 App. O. II. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 295 

cal est beau autant que le faux peut 1 l , etre. — " Le faux," reprit 
Despreaux, "le faux! sachez qu'il est aussi vrai qu'il est inimi- 
table. On vient de le traduire en trois langues." Le pere re- 
pond : " II n'en est pas plus vrai." Despreaux s'echaufFe, et, 
crie comme un fou : Quoi ! mon pere, direz-vous qu'un des 
votres 2 n'ait pas fait imprimer dans un de ses livres qu'im Chri- 
tien rtest pas oblige 3 (P aimer Dieu ? Osez-vous dire que cela 
est faux ?" — "Monsieur," dit le pere en fureur, il faut distin- 
guer." — "Distinguer," dit Despreaux, " distinguer ! morbleu ! 
distinguer, distinguer si nous sommes obliges d'aimer Dieu ;" 
et, prenant Corbinelli par le bras, il s'enfuit au bout de la cham- 
bre. Puis, revenant et courant comme un forcene, il ne voulut 
jamais se rapprocher du pere, et s'en alia 4 rejoindre la com- 
pagnie qui etait demeuree 5 dans la salle ou Ton mange. Ici 
finit l'bistoire : le rideau tombe. (Id.) 



La cupidite double merit punie. 

Un riche particulier, voyant son fils pret a s'oublier au jeu, 
le laissa faire. Le jeune hornme perdit une somme assez con- 
siderable. "Je la paierai," lui dit son pere, " parceque I'hon- 
neur 6 m'est plus cher que 1'argent. Cependant expliquons- 
uous. 7 Vous airnez le jeu, mon fils, et moi 8 les pauvfes. Je 
leur ai moins donne depuis que je songe a vous pourvoir. Je 
n'y songe plus: un joueur ne doit point se marier. Jouez tant 
qu'il vous plaira ; mais acette condition : Je declare qu'a cbaque 
perte nouvelle les pauvres recevront de ma part autant 
d'argent que j'en aurai compte pour acquitter de semblables 
dettes. Commencons des aujourd'hui." La somme fut sur-le- 
champ portee a l'hopital ; et le jeune homme, doublement 
puni de sa cupidite, fut gueri, par cette seule lecon, d'un pen- 
chant qui allait entrainer sa mine. (Berqujn.) 



L'Horame. 

Je vois l'homme pourvu de tout ce qui peut servir a son 
bonheur. D'une conformation superieure a celle de tous les 

i § 479.— 2 § 363.— 3 App. P. Ill— 4 See Mler, App. M.— 5 § 578. 
— 6 § 401. — 7 cxpliquons-nous } let us understand each other. — 
8 § 400. 



296 SELECTIONS FROM 

animaux, il dompte avec son gtnie le petit nombre de ceux 
dont 1 les forces surpassent les siennes. S'il n'a pas recu en 
partage 2 la rapid ite du cerf hi du cheval, il forge les traits qui 
devancent Tun dans sa course, et il monte sur le dos de Pautre 
pour le diriger. Prive de l'aile de l'oiseau, ii 3 en donne a Par- 
bre immobile qui vegete dans les forets, et s'en fait porter jus- 
qu'aux bornes du monde. Sa vue, moins percante que celle 
de l'insecte, n'est pas aussi bornee a Pespace etroit 4 ou il se 
meut 5 ; ses regards peuvent 6 embrasser un immense horizon, 
et contempler les grandes merveilles de la nature. Comme 
Paigle, il ne fixe pas le soleil ; mais il invente des instrumens 
qui semblent le rapprocher de cet astre, pour mesurer sa dis- 
tance, et observer sa position, au milieu d'une foule innombra- 
ble d'etoiles obscurcies par sa splendeur. Tous ses autres sens 
lui procurent aussi des jouissances contiuuelles, et veillent 
egalement a ses plaisirs et a sa surete. Un noble sentiment de 
son genie lui fait 7 tenter chaque jour, avec succes, de nouvelles 
decouvertes. II desarme le tonnerre, ou lui marque la place 
qu'il doit frapper. II combat les elemens Tun par I 'autre, op- 
pose la douce chaleur du feu au souffle glace de Pair, et defend 
la terre de la fureur des eaux. Tantot il descend dans les plus 
tenebreuses profondeurs de son sejour, pour en rapporter de 8 
riches metaux qu'il epure, et dont il forme, par un melange in- 
genieux, des substances nouvelles. Tantot il gravit les roches 
informessuspenduessur sa tete, les precipite dans les vallees, et 
les releve en edifices somptueux, ou en py ram ides hardies qui 
vont 9 cacher leurs sommets dans les nues. La societe qu'il 
forme avec ses semblables, pour la satisfaction reciproque de 
leurs besoins, le fait jouir, en recompense de son travail, des 
travaux de cent millions de bras empresses a lui procurer les 
douceurs de la vie. II trouve a chaque pas sous ses mains les 
productions de tout l'univers. Les sciences elevent son ame 
et agrandissent son esprit ; les beaux-arts adoucissent ses peines 
et le delassent de ses labeurs. La meinoire et la reflexion lui 
forment une experience de celle 10 de tous les siecles qui se sont 
ecoules. Avec le doux sentiment de son existence personelle, 
son cceur jouit 11 encore, dans les autres, par la compassion et la 
bienfaisance, par les liaisons du sang et de Pamitie. Sa felicite 
ne depend que de lui seul, au milieu de tout ce qui Pentoure, 
puisqu'on la trouve dans Pexercice mod ere de ses forces, et 

1 § 425. — 8 en partage, as a portion. — 3 en, it. — 4 § 339. — 5 se 
mouvoir. — 6 App. M. — 7 App. P. IV. — 8 § 247. — 9 App. P. V.— 
10 i. e. theexperience. — n neut. verb. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 297 

dans 1'usage constant de sa raison. S'il la trouve quelquefois 
en cherchant a s'elancer trop loin de lui-m6me, il n'en doit 
accuser que sa folie. (Id.) 



Le Riche et le Pauvre, 

Giton a le teint frais, le visage plein, et les joues pendantes, 
Pceil fixe et assure, les epaules larges, 1'estomac haut, la de- 
marche ferme et deliberee : il parle avec 1 confiance, il fait 9 
repeter celui qui l'entretient, et il ne goute 3 que mediocrement 
tout ce qu'il lui dit : il deploie un ample mouchoir, il se 
mouche avec grand bruit; il crache fort loin, el il eternue fort 
haut ; il dort 4 le jour, il dort la nuit, et profondement ; il ron- 
fle en eampagnie. 11 occupe a table et a la promenade plus de 
place qu'un autre ; il tient le milieu en se promenant avec ses 
egaux ; il s'arrete, et I'on s'arrete ; il continue de marcher, et 
Ton marcher tous se reglent sur lui; il interrompt, il redresse 
ceux qui ont la parole ; on ne Finterrrompt pas, on l'tcoute 
aussi long-temps qu'il veut parler ; on croit les nouvelles qu'il 
debite. S'il s'assied, vous le voyez s'enfoncer dans un fauteuil, 
croiser les jambes l'une sur l'autre, froncer le sourcil, 5 abaisser 
son chapeau sur ses yeux pour ne voir personne, ou le relever 
ensuite, et decouvrir son front par fierte et par audace. II est 
enjoue, grand rieur, impatient, presomptueux, colere, libertin, 
politique, mysterieux sur les affaires du temps r il se croit des 
talens et de l'esprit. II est riche. 

Phedon a les yeux creux, le teint echauffi, le corps sec et 
le visage maigre : il dort peu, et d'un sommeil fort leger : il 
est abstrait, reveur, et il a, avec de l'esprit, l'air d'un Stupider 
il oublie de dire ce qu'il sait ou de parler d'evenernens qui lui 
sont connus ; et, s'il le fait quelquefois, il s'en tire mal ; il croit 
peser a ceux a qui il parle: il conte brievement, mais froide- 
ment ; il ne se fait pas (' couter, il ne fait point rire ; il ap- 
plaudit, il sourit a ce que les autres lui disent, il est de leur 
avis; il court, il vole, pour leur rendre petits services r il est 
complaisant, flatteur, empresse, il est mysterieux sur ses affaires, 
quelquefois menteur ; il est superstitieux, scrupuleux, timide ; 
il marche doucement et legerement, il semble 6 craindre de 
fouler la terre ; il marche les yeux baissis, et il n'ose 7 les lever 

i § 237. — 2 App.P.IV. — 3 App.O. § XVI.b. — 4 § 704. — *$144. 
— • App. P. V. — 7 App. 0. 11. $ XI11. 



298 SELECTIONS FROM 

sur ceux qui passent. II n'est jamais du nombre de ceux qui 
forment un cercle pour discourir ; il se met derriere celui qui 
parle, recueille furtivement ce qui se dit, et se retire si on le re- 
garde. II n'occupe point de lieu, il ne tient point de place ; il 
va les epaules serrees, le chapeau abaisse sur ses yeux pour 
n'etre point vu ; il se replie, et se renferme dans son manteau; 
il n'y a point de rues ni de galeries si embarrassees et si rem- 
plies de monde, ou il ne trouve 1 moyen de passer sans effort, 
et de se cooler sans etre apercu. Si on le prie de s'asseoir, il 
se met a peine sur le horde d'un siege ; il parle bas dans la 
conversation, et il articule mal : libre neanmoins sur les affairs 
publiques, chagrin contre le siecle, mediocrement prevenu des 
ministres et du ministere, il n'ouvre 2 la bouche que pour re- 
pondre: il tousse, il se mouche sous son chapeau, il crache 
presque sur soi, et il attend qu'il soit seul pour eternuer, ou, si 
cela lui arrive, e'est a l'insu de la compagnie ; il n'en coute 3 k 
personne ni salut, ni compliment. II est pauvre. 

(La Bruyere.) 



Respect a la vieillesse. 

Les Egyptiens avaient pour les vieillards le respect le plus 
profond. La jeunesse se levait devant eux, et leur cedait 
partout la f)lace d'honneur. Pendant les fetes qu'on nommait 
Panathenees, et qui se ctlebraient a Athenes, un vieillard etait 
venu 4 chercher une place dans l'endroit ou se tenaient les 
Atheniens. Les jeunes gens se moquerent de lui, et le ren- 
voyerent avec 5 dedain. II se prtsenta ensuite du cote des 
Lacedemoniens. Des qu'il fut a leur portee, ils se leverent 
tous, par 6 respect pour son age. Les Atheniens applaudirent 
cette action avec 7 enthousiasme. "Helns?" sVeria un Lactde- 
monien, "ce people connait ce qui est honnete, sans s avoir le 
courage de le pratiquer." Pour le vieillard, attendri, il s'ecria: 
" Les Grecs connaissent les regies de la bienstance ; les Lace- 
demoniens les pratiquent."" Effectivement, la vieillesse, de- 
voui'-e ailleurs au meffrie, elevait un Spartiate an faite de 1'hon- 
neur. Les autres citoyens, et Biirtout les jeunes gens, avaient 
pour lui les egards qu'ils devaient, un jour, exigor pour eux- 
m^mes. La loi les ohligeait de lui ceder le pas 9 a cheque ren- 

i § 238. — 2 App. O. 11. $ XVI. b. — 3 App O. 11. * XVII. — 
^ App. P. V. — 5 § 237. — 6 § 237. — 7 § 237. — 8 § 5G3. — 9 ccder le 
pas, to yield precedence. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 299 

contre, de se lever quand il paraissait, de se taire quand il par- 
lait. On l'ecoutait avec deference dans les assemblies de la 
nation et dans les salles du gymnase. Ainsi les citoyens de 
Lacedemone, qui avaient servi leur patrie, loin de lui devenir 
etrangers a la fin de leur carriere, etaient respectes, les uns 
com me les depositaries de 1'experience, les autres comme ces 
monumens dont on se fait une religion de conserver les debris. 

(Barthelemt.) 



Jerusalem. 

Entre la vallee du Jourdain et les plaines de I'Idumee 
s'etend une ehaine de 1 montagnes qui commence aux champs 
fertiles de la Galilee, et va se perdre dans les sables de l'Yemen. 
Au centre de ces montagnes se trouve un bassin aride, ferme 
de toutes parts par des sommets jaunes et rocailleux. Ces som- 
mets ne s'entr'ouvrent 2 qu'au levant, pour laisser voir le goufTre 
de la mer Morte et les montagnes lointaines de l'Arabie. Au 
milieu de ce paysage de 3 pierres, sur un terrain inegal et pen- 
chant, dans l'enceinte d'une tour jadis ebranlee sous les coups 
de 4 belier, et fortifiee par des tours qui torn bent, on apercoit de 5 
vastes debris. Des cypres epars, des buissons d 'aloes et de 
nopals, quelques masures Arabes, pareilles a des sipulcres 
blanchis, recouvrent cet amas de ruines. C'est la triste Jeru- 
salem. Au premier aspect de cette region desolee, un grand 
ennui saisit le coeur; mais lorsque, passant de solitude en soli- 
tude, l'espace s'etend sans bornes devant yous, peu a peu l'en- 
nui se dissipe, le voyageur eprouve une terreur secrete qui, 
loin d'abaisser l'ame, donne du courage et eleve le genie. Des 
aspects extraordinaires decelent de toutes parts une terre tra- 
vaillee par des miracles. Le soleil brulant, l'aigle impttueux, 
l'humble hysope, le cedre superbe, le figuier sterile, toute la poe- 
sie et tous les tableaux de I'Ecriture sont la. Chaque nom 
renferme un mystere, chaque grotte declare l'avenir, chaque 
sommet retentit des accens d J un prophete. Dieu meme a 
parle sur ces bords. Les torrens dess*'clus, 6 les rochers fen- 
dus, les tombeaux entr'ouverts, attestent les prodiges; le desert 
parait encore muet de terreur, et Ton dirait qu'il n'a 7 ose rom- 
pre le silence depuis que l'Eternel a parle. 

Chateaubriand. 

i § 249. — 2 App.EO. II.$XVl.b. ^- 3 § 253. — 4 § 253. — 5 § 247. 
_ e 342. — 7 App. O. 1I.$X1H. 



300 SELECTIONS FROM 



Constantinople. 

Constantinople, et surtout la cote d'Asie, etaient noyees dang 
le brouillard. Les cypres et les minarets que j'apercevais a 
travers 1 cette vapeur prtsentaieut l'aspect d'une foret depouil- 
lee. Comme nous approchions de la pointe du serai?, le vent 
du Nord se leva et balaya, en moins de 2 quelques minutes, la 
brume repandue sur ce tableau. Je me trouvai tout-a-coup au 
milieu des palais du Commandeur des Croyans. Devant moi 
le canal de la Mer Noire serpentait entre des collines riantes, 
ainsi qu'un fleuve superbe. J'avais a droit la terre d'x\sie et la 
ville de Scutari. La terre d'Europe etait a ma gauche. Elle 
forrnait, en se creusant, une large baie pleine de grands navires 
a l'ancre, et traversee par d'innombrables petits bateaux. Cette 
baie, renfermee entre deux coteaux, presentait en regard et 
en amphitheatre Constantinople et Galata. L'immensite de 
ees trois villes etagees, Galata, Constantinople, et Scutari ; les 
cypres, les minarets, les mats des vaisseaux qui s'tlevaient et 
se confondaient de toutes parts ; la verdure des arbres ; les cou- 
leurs des maisons blanches et rouges ; la mer qui etendait sous 
ces objets sa nappe bleue ; 3 et le ciel qui deroulait au dessus un 
autre champ d'azur : voila ce que j'admirais. On n'exagere 
point, quand on dit que Constantinople ofTre le plus beau point 
de vue de l'univers. — Nous abordames a Galata. Je remarquai 
sur-le-champ le mouvement des quais, et la foule des porteurs, 
des marchands, et des mariniers. Ceux-ci annoncaient par la 
couleur diverse de leurs visages, par la difference de leurs lan- 
gages, de leurs habits, de leurs chapeaux, de leurs bonnets, de 
leurs turbans, qu'ils etaient 4 venus de toutes les parties de I'Eu- 
rope et de l'Asie habiter cette frontiere de deux mondes. 
L'absence presque totale des femmes, le manque de voitures 
a roues, et les meutes de chiens sans maitres, furent les trois 
caracteres distinctifs 5 qui me frapperent d'abord dans l'interieur 
de cette ville extraordinaire. Comme on ne marche guere 
qu'en babouches, qu'on n'entend point de bruits de carrosses et 
de charrettes, qu'il n'y a point de cloches, ni presque point de 
metiers a marteau, le silence est continuel. Vous voyez autour 
de vous une foule muette, qui semble vouloir passer sans etre 
apergue, et qui a toujours Pair de se derober aux regards du 
maitre. Vous arrivez sans cesse d'un bazar a un cimetiere, 

1 § 698. — 2 en moins de. in less tlian. — 3 § 336. — 4 App. L, — 
• $ 344, 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 301 

comme si les Turcs n'etaient la que pour acheter, vendre, et 
mourir. Ces cimetieres sans murs et places au milieu des rues 
sont des bois magnifiques de cypres. Les colombes font leurs 
nids dans ces cypres, et partagent la paix de morts. On de- 
couvre ca et la quelques monumens antiques qui n'ont de rap- 
port, ni avec les hommes modernes, ni avec les monumens 
nouveaux dont ils sont environnes. On dirait qu'ils ont ete 
transports dans cette ville orientale par 1'efFet du talisman. 
Aucun signe de joie, aucune apparence de bonheur ne se mon- 
tre a vos yeux : ce qu'on voit n'est pas un peuple, mais un 
troupeau qu'un Iman conduit, et qu'un Janissaire egorge. II 
n'y a d'autre plaisir que la debauche, d'autre peine que la 
mort. Au milieu des prisons et des bagnes s'eleve un serail, 
capitole de la servitude ; c'est la qu'un gardien sacre conserve 
les germes de la peste et les lois primitives de la tyrannic 
De pales adorateurs rodent sans cesse autour du temple, et vien- 
nent apporter leurs tetes a 1'idole. Rien ne pent les soustraire 
au sacrifice ; ils sont entraines par un pouvoir fatal. Les yeux 
du despote attirent les esclaves, commes les regards du serpent 
fascinent les oiseaux dont il fait sa proie. (Id.) 



V e n i s e. 

On s'embarque sur la Brenta pour arriver a Venise, et des 
deux 1 cotes du canal on voit les palais des Venetiens, grands et 
un pen delabres, comme la magnificence Italienne. 2 Ils sont 
ornes d'une maniere bizarre et qui ne rappelle en rien le gout 
antique. L'architecture Venetienne se ressent 3 du commerce 
avec l'Orient. C'est un melange du gout Mauresque et Go- 
thique qui attire la curiosite sans 4 plaire l'imagination. Le 
peuplier, cet arbre regulier 5 comme l'architecture, borde le ca- 
nal presque partout. Le ciel est d'un bleu vif, 6 qui contraste 
avec le vert eclatant de la campagne. Ce vert est entretenu 
par l'abondance excessive 7 des eaux. Le ciel et la terre sont 
ainsi de deux couleurs si fortement tranchees, que cette nature 
elle-meme a 1'air d'etre arrangee avec une sorte d'appret ; et 
1'on n'y trouve point le vague mysterieux qui fait aimer le midi 
de 8 l'Italie. L'aspect de Venise est plus etonnant qu'agreable. 
On croit d'abord voir une ville submergee, et la 9 reflexion est 

i § 345. — 2 § 340. — 3 se ressent, bears marks. — * § 237. — 5 § 339. 
— « § 344. — 7 § 344.— 8 § 225. — 9 § 232, 

26 



302 SELECTIONS FROM 

necessaire pour admirer le genie des mortels qui ont conquis 
cette demeure sur les eaux. Naples 1 est batie en amphithea- 
tre au bord de la mer, mais Venise etant sur un terrain tout-a- 
fait plat, les clochers ressemblent aux mats d'un vaisseau qui 
resterait immobile au milieu des ondes. Un sentiment de tris- 
tesse s'empare de l'imagi nation en entrant dans 2 Venise. On 
prend conge 3 de la vegetation : on ne voit pas me me une 
mouche en ce sejour; tous les animaux en sont bannis ; et 
1'homme seul est la pour lutter contre la mer. 

Le silence est profond dans cette ville, dont les rues sont des 
canaux, et le bruit des rames est l'unique interruption a ce si- 
lence. Ce n'est pas la campagne, puisqu'on n'y voit pas un 
arbre ; ce n'est pas la ville, puisqu'on n'y entend pas le moin- 
dre mouvement ; ce n'est pas rneme un vaisseau, puisqu'on 
n'avance pas: c'est une demeure dont l'orage fait une prison^ 
car il y a 4 des momens ou l'on ne peut sortir ni de la ville ni 
de chez soi. 5 On trouve des hommes du peuple a Venise qui 
n'ont pas vu la place Saint-Marc, et pour qui la vue d'un che- 
val ou d'un arbre serait une veritable merveille. Ces gondoles 
noires, qui glissent sur les canaux, ressemblent a 6 des cercueils 
ou a des berceaux, a la derniere et a la premiere demeure de 
1'homme. Le soir on ne voit passer que le reflet des lanternes 
qui eelairent les gondoles ; car de nuit leur couleur noire 
emperhe de les distinguer. On dirait que ce sont des ombres 
qui glissent sur l'eau, guidees par une petite etoile. Dans ce 
sejour tout est mystere, le gouvernement, les coutumes, et 
1'amour. Sans doute il y a l)eaucoup de jouissances pour le 
cceur et la raison, quand on parvient a penetrer dans tous ces 
secrets; mais les etrangers doivent trouver l'impression du pre- 
mier moment singulierement triste. (Mme. de Stael.) 



Alexandrie. 

Parmi les lieux propres 7 a causer la surprise et 1'admiration, il 
en 8 est pen qui reuuissent aufant de moyens qu'Alexandrie en 
Egypte. Le nom de cette ville, qui rappelle le genie d'un 
homme si etonnant ; le nom du pays, qui tient a tant de faits et 
d'idees ; l'aspectdu lieu, qui presente un tableau si pittoresque ; 

1 App. G. — 2 $ 225. — 3 $ 2^8. — « from y avoir, — • chez soi, 
home. — Q App. P.I.-- 7 App. P. VI. — 8 $ 509. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 303 

ces palmiers, qui s'elevent en parasol ; ces maisons a ter- 
rasse, qui semblent depourvues de toit ; ces fleches greles des 
minarets, qui portent une balustrade dans les airs; tout avertit 
le voyageur qu'il est dans un autre monde. Descend-il a terre, 
une foule d'objets 1 inconnus 1'assaile par tous ses sens; c'est 
une langue dont les sons barbares et 1'accent acre et guttural 
effraient son oreille ; ce sont des habillemens d'une forme bi- 
zarre, des figures d'un caractere etrange. Au lieu de nos 
visages nus, de nos tetes enflees de cheveux, de nos coiffures 
triangulares, et de nos habits courts et serres, il regarde avec 
surprise ces visages brules, armes de barbe et de moustaches ; 
cet amas d'etofFe roulee en plis sur une tete rase ; ce long vehe- 
ment, qui, tombant du cou aux talons, voile le corps plutot qu'il 
ne l'habille ; et ces pipes de six pieds; et ces longs chapelets 
dont toutes les mains sont garnies ; et ces hideux chameaux 
qui portent 1'eau dans des sacs de cuir ; et ces a.nes selles et 
brides, qui transported legerement leur cavalier en pantoufles ; 
et ce marche mal fourni de dattes et de petits pains ronds et 
plats ; et cette foule imrnonde de alliens errans dans les rues; 
et ces especes de fan tomes ambulans qui, sous une draperie 
d'une seule piece, ne montrent d'humain que des yeux de 2 
fern me. Dans ce tumulte, tout entier a ses sens, son esprit est nul 
pour la reflexion ; ce n'est 3 qu'apresetre arrive au gite si desire 
quand on vient de la mer, que, devenu plus calme, il considere 
avec reflexion ces rues etroits et sans pave, ces maisons basses 
et dont les jours rares sont masques de treillages, ce peuple 
maigre et noiratre, qui marche nu-pieds, et n'a pour tout vehe- 
ment qu'une chemise bleue, ceinte d'un cuir ou d'un mou- 
choir rouge. Deja Pair general de misere qu'il voit sur les 
hommes, et le mystere qui enveloppe les maisons, lui font 
soupconner la rapacite de la tyrannie et la defiance de l'escla- 
vage. Maisun spectacle qui bientot attire tome son attention, 
ce sont 4 les vastes mines qu'il apercoit du cote de la terre. 
Dans nos contrees, les mines sont un objet de curiosite: a 
peine trouve-t-on, aux lieux ecartes, quelque vieux chateau 
dont le delabrement annonce plutot la desertion du maitre que 
la misere du lieu. Dans Alexandrie, au contraire, a peine sort- 
on de la ville neuve dans le continent, que 5 l'on est frappe de 
l'aspect d'un vaste terrain tout couvert de ruines. Pendant 
deux heures de marche, on suit une double ligne de 6 murs et 
de tours, qui formaient l'enceinte de l'ancienne Alexandrie. 

i § 249.— 2 § 253 — 3 App. O. II. § XVI. b.— < §027.— 5 § 191. 
— « 8 259. 



304 SELECTIONS FROM 

La terre est couverte des debris de leurs sommets ; des pans 
entieres sont ecroules, les voutes enfoncees ; les creneaux de- 
grades, et les pierres rongees et defigurees par le salpetre. On 
parcourt un vaste interieur sillonne de fouilles, perce de puits, 
distribue par des murs ademi enfouis, semede quelquescolon- 
nes anciennes, de tombeaux modernes, de palrniers, de nopals, 
et ou l'on ne trouve de vivant que des chacals, des eperviers, et 
des hiboux. Les habitans, aceoutumes a ce spectacle, n'en re- 
§oivent aucune impression ; mais 1'etranger, en qui les sou- 
venirs qu'il rappelle s'exaltent par 1'effet de la nouveaute, 
eprouve une emotion qui souvent passe jusqu'aux larmes, et qui 
donne lieu a des reflexions dont la tristesse attache autant le 
cceur que leur majeste eleve l'ame. (Volney,) 



Chilian. 

Chillon, ^ncienne prison d'etat des dues de Savoie, au- 
jourd'hui I'arsenal du canton de Vaux, fut bati en 1250. La 
captivite de Bonnivard Pa tellement rempli de son souvenir, 
qu'on a oublie jusqu'au nom d'un prisonnier qui s'en ecbappa 2 
en 1798, d'une maniere presque miracufeuse. Ce malheureux 
parvint a faire un trou dans le mur, a l'aide d'un clou arrache 
a, la semelle de ses souliers; mais, sorti de son cachot, 3 il se 
trouva dans un plus grand, et voila tout. II lui fallut alors, a 
la force du poignet, briser une barre de fer qui fermait une 
meurtriere de trois ou quatre pouces de large ; la trace de ses 
souliers restee sur le talus de cette meurtriere atteste que les 
efforts qu'il fut oblige de faire depassaient presque la puissance 
humaine. Ses pieds, a l'aide desquels il se roidissait, ont 
creuse la pierre a Ja profondeur d'un pouce. Cette meurtriere 
est la troisieme a gauche en entrant dans le grand cachot. 

Nous avons parle 4 de Bonnivard et de Berthelier. Le pre- 
mier avait dit un jour que, pour 1'affranchissement deson pays, 
il donnerait sa liberte; le second repondit qu'il donnerait sa 
vie. Ce double engagement fut entendu, et lorsque les bour- 
reaux vinrent en reclamer l'accomplissement, ils les trouverent 
prels tous deux a l'accomplir. Berthelier marcha al'echafaud. 
Bonnivard, transporte a Chillon, y trouva une captivite affreuse. 
Lie par le milieu du corps a une chaine, dont l'autre bout allait 

i $ 221. — 2 § 612. — 3 § 78. — 4 § 618, 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 305 

rejoindre un anneau de fer scelle dans un pilier, il resta ainsi 
six ans, n'ayant de liberte que la longueur de cette chaine, ne 
pouvant se coucher que la ou elle lui permettait de s'etendre, 
tournant toujours comme une bete fauve alentour de son pilier, 
creusant le pave avec sa marche forcement reguliere, ronge par 
cette pensee, que sa captivite ne servait peut-etre en rien a 
l'afTranchissementde son pays, etque Geneve et lui etaient vou- 
£s a des fers eternels. Comment, dans cette longue nuit, que nul 
jour ne venait interrompre, dont le silence n'etait 1 trouble que 
par le bruit des flots du lac battant les murs du cachot, com- 
ment la pensee n'a-t-elle pas tue la matiere, ou la matiere 
la pensee? Comment, un matin, le geolier ne trouva-t-il 2 
pas son prisonnier mort ou fou, quand une seule idee eter- 
nelle devait lui briser le cceur et lui dessecher le cerveau ? Et 
pendant ce temps, pendant six ans, pendant cette eternite, pas 
un cri, pas une plainte, dirent ses geoliers, excepte sans doute 
quand le ciel decbainait 1'orage, quand la tempete soulevait les 
flots, quand la pluie et le vent fouettaient les murs. Car alors sa 
voix se perdait dans la grande voix de la nature: car alors, 
vous seul, 6 mon Dieu ! vous pouviez distinguer ses cris et ses 
sanglots; et ses geoliers, qui n'avaient pas joui de son deses- 
poir, le retrouvaient le lendemain calme et resigne, car la tem- 
pete alors s'etait calmee dans son cceur comme dans la nature. 
Ob ! sa*s cela, sans cela, ne se serait-il pas brise la tete a son 
pilier ? ne se serait-il pas etrangle avec sa chaine ? aurait-il pas 
attendu le jour ou 1'on entra en tumulte dans sa prison, et ou 
cent voix lui dirent a la fois : 

— Bonnivard, tu es libre ! 

— Et Geneve ? 

— Libre aussi ! — 

Depuis lors, la prison du martyr est devenue un temple, et 
son pilier un ante]. Tout ce qui a un cceur noble et amoureux 
de la liberte se detourne de sa route, et vient prier la ou il a 
souffert. On se fait conduire droit a la colonne ou il a ete si 
long-temps enchaine ; on cherche, sur sa surface granitique, ou 
chacun veut inscrire un nom, les caracteres qu'il y a graves ; 
on se courbe vers la dalle creusee pour y retrouver la trace de 
ses pas ; on se cramponne a l'anneau auquel il etait attache, 
pour eprouver s'il est solidement scelle encore avec son ciment 
de huit siecles. Toute autre idee se perd dans cette idee : e'esi 

1 App. O. II. § XVI. b. — 2 § 287, note. 

*26 



306 SELECTIONS FROM 

ici qu'il est reste enchaine six ans . . . six ans . . . c'est-a-dire 
la neuvieme partie de la vie d un homme. 

Un soir, c'etait en 1816, par une de ces belles nuits qu'on 
croirait que Dieu a faites pour la Suisse seule, une barque 
s'avanca silencieusement, laissant derriere elle un sillage bril- 
lante par les rayons brises de la lune ; elle cinglait vers les 
murs blanchatres du chateau de Chillon, et toucha au rivage 
sans secousse, sans bruit, comme un cygne qui aborde ; il en 
descendit un homme, au teint pale, aux yeux percans, au front 
decouvert et hautain ; il etait enveloppe d'un grand manteau 
noir qui cachait ses pieds, et cependant on s'apercevait qu'il 
boitait legerement. II demanda a voir le cachot de Bonnivard ; 
il y resta seul et long-temps, et lorsqu'on rentra apres lui dans 
le sonterrain, on trouva, sur le pilier meme auquel avait ete 
enchaine le martyr, un nouveau nom : BYRON. 

(A. Dumas.) 



B u ffo n . 

L' historien de la nature est noble, fecond, majestueux com- 
me elle, mais pas toujours aussi varie. Comme elle, il s'eleve 
sans effort et sans secousse ; comme elle, il descend dans les 
plus petits details, sans 1 6tre moins attachant ni moins beau. 
Son style se plie a tous les objets, et en prend la couleur : 
sublime, quand il deploie a nos regards l'immensite des etres et 
les richesses de la creation, quand il peint les revolutions du 
globe, les bienfaits ou les rigueurs de la nature ; orne quand il 
decrit, profond quand il analyse, interessant lorsqu'il nous ra- 
conte Fhistoire de ces animaux devenus nos amis et nos bien- 
faiteurs. Juste envers ceux qui Pont precede dans le meme 
genre d'ecrire, il loue Pline le natural iste et Aristote, et il est 
plus eloquent que ces deux grands hommes. En un mot, son 
ouvrage est un des beaux 2 monumens de ce siecle, eleve pour 
les ages suivans, et auquel I'antiquite n'a rien a opposer. 

(La Harpe.) 



M a r i u s . 

Marius etait ne dans un village proche d'Arpinum,de parens 
pauvres, et qui gagnaient leur vie du travail de leurs mains. 

i § 563. — 9 § 322. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 30? 

II avait ete eleve clans les travaux rustiques, et ses mceurs etai- 
ent aussi feroces que son visage etait afTreux. C'etait un 
homme d'une grande taille, d'une force de corps extraordinaire ; 
courageux et soldat avant que d'avoir porte les armes. II en- 
tra de bonne heure 1 dans les armees, il s'y distingua par des 
actions d'une rare valeur, et surtout par une pratique exacte de 
la discipline militaire. II cherchait dans toutes les occasions 
des perils dignesde son courage, et les plus longues marches et 
toutes les fatigues de la guerre ne coutaient rien a un homme 
eleve durement. On remarque toujours dans sa conduite un 
extreme eloignement des voluptes: et depuis son elevation il 
ne parut sensible qu'a l'ambition et a la vengeance ; passions 
qui couterent tant de sang a la republique. II passe par tous 
les degres de la milice ; et ces differens grades furent toujours 
la recompense d'autant d'actions ou il s'etait signale. Quand 
il demanda au peuple la charge de tribun dans une legion, la 
plupart de ses concitoyens ne connaissaient pas son visage : 
mais son norn n'etait ignore de personne ; et, a la faveur d'une 
reputation si bien etablie, il emporta cet emploi sur plusieurs 
patriciens qu'il avait pour competiteurs. Metellus, si bon juge 
de la valeur, le poussa depuis aux premieres charges de Par- 
mee, et il parvint par sa protection jusqu'a la dignite de tribun 
du peuple. Ce fut dans cette place qu'il commenca a decou- 
vrir son ambition et la haine violente qu'il portait au parti de 
la noblesse. 11 declamait incessamment contre le luxe des se- 
nateurs; et, quoiqu'il ne fut pas eloquent, il ne cessait de repre- 
senter au peuple, avec une voix forte et tonnante, combien il 
lui devait etre honteux de n'oser confier le commandement des 
armees et les principales dtgnites de l'etat qu'a des nobles; 
que ces hommes avares et ambitieux se les 2 etaient comme 
approprites ; qu'a la faveur de leur credit ils se les remettaient 
de main en main ; et que pendant qu'ils en etaient revetus ils 
y exercaient impunement toute sorte de 3 brigandages. 

(Vertot.) 



Sylla. 

Lucius Cornelius Sylla, 4 patricien, et d'une des plus illustres 
families de Rome, etait bien fait, de bonne mine, Pair noble, 
les manieres aisees, pleines de franchise en apparence, et qui 

1 de bonne heure, early. — 2 les, i. e. the dignities. — 3 § 250. — 4 § 
220. 



308 SELECTIONS FROM 

eemblaient laisser voir a reconvert 1 le fond de son cceur; natu- 
rellement insinuant, persuasif, eloquent, il aimait les plaisirs, 
et encore plus la gloire. Son devoir marchait devant tout ; il 
savait se livrer et s'arracher aux voluptes avec la meme facilite. 
II voulait plaire a tout le nionde : modeste dans ses discours 
s'il etait question de parler de lui-m£me ; prodigue de louanges 
pour les autres, et encore plus d'argent. 11 en pretait avec plai- 
sir a ceux qui avaient recours a lui, et prevenait ceux qui en 
avait besoin et qui n'osaient lui en emprunter. II ne le rede- 
mandait jamais, et il semblait qu'il voulut acheter I'armee enti- 
ere. Familier surtout avec les simples soldats, devenant soldat 
lui-meme, il en prenait les manieres grossieres, buvait avec 
eux, les raillait, souffrait avec plaisir d'en 2 etre raille; mais 
hois de la table, 3 serieux, actif, diligent. C'etait un Protee a 
qui ces difFerens personnages ne coutaient rien, et ses vertus et 
ses defauts etaient egalement cou verts par une profoude dis- 
simulation qui le rendait impenetrable jusques dans ses plaisirs 
les plus secrets, aux compagnons memes de ses debauches. 

(Id.) 



Cesar 



Cains Julius Cesar etait ne de l'illustre famille des Jules, 
qui, comme toutes les grandes maisons, avait sa cbimere, en se 
vantant de tire son origine d'Anchise et de Venus. C'etait 
l'homme de son temps le mieux fait, adroit a toutes sortes 
d'exercices, infatigable au travail, plein de valeur, le courage 
eleve, vaste dans ses desseins, magnifique sans sa depense, et 
liberal jusqu'a, la profusion. La nature, qui semblait Tavoir 
fait 4 naitre pour commander au reste des hommes, lui avait 
donne un air d'empire et dignite dans ses manieres: mais cet 
air de grandeur etait tempere par la douceur et la facilite de 
ses moeurs. Son eloquence insinnante et invincible etait en- 
core plus attachee aux charmes de sa personne qu'a la force de 
ses raisons. Ceux qui etaient assez durs pour resister a 5 
l'impression que faisaient tant d'aimables qualites, n'ecbappai- 
ent point a ses bienfaits, et il commenca par 6 assujettir les 
cceurs, comme le fondement le plus solide de la domination a 
laquelle il aspirait. 

Ne 7 simple citoyen d'une republique, il forma, dans une con- 

1 a dtcouvert, uncovered. — 2 en, by them. — 3 hors dc la tabic, away 
from the table. — 4 App. P. IV. — 5 App. P. I. — « § 563. — 7 § 220. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 309 

dition privee, le projet 1 d , assnjettir sa patrie. La grandeur et 
les perils d'une pareille enterprise ne l'epouvanterent point. II 
ne trouva rien au-dessus de son ambition, que 1'etendue im- 
mense de ses vues. Les exemples recens de Marius et de Sylla 
lui flrent comprendre qu'il n'etait pas impossible de s'elever a 
la souveraine puissance ; mais, sage jusque dans ses desirs im- 
moderes, il distribua en differens temps l'extcution de ses des- 
seins. Son esprit, toujours juste, malgre son etendue, n'alla 
que par degres au projet de la domination ; et, quelque ecla- 
tantes 2 qu'aient ete depuis ses victoires, elles ne doivent passer 
pour de grandes actions que parcequ'elles furent toujours la 
suite et 1'effet de grands desseins. (Id.) 



Fenelon ecrivain. 

On croirait que Fenelon a prodtiit 3 le Telemaque d'un seul 
jet ; l'homme de lettres le plus exerce dans Part d'ecrire ne 
pourrait distinguer les momens ou Fenelon a quitte et repris la 
plume, tant ses transitions sont naturelles, soit qu'il entraine 
doucement par la pente de ses idees, soit qu'il fasse franchir 
avec lui l'espace que l'imagination agrandit ou resserre a son 
gre. Jamais on n'aper^oit aucun effort; maitre de sa pensee, 
il la voit sans nuages ; il ne 1'exprime pas, il la peint ; il sent, 
il pense, et le mot suit avec la grace, la noblesse, ou l'onction 
qui lui convient. Toujours coulant, toujours lie, toujours 
nombreux, toujours periodique, il connait l'utilite de ces liai- 
sons grammaticales que nous laissons perdre, qui enrichissaient 
1'idiome du Grec, et sans lesquelles il n'y aura 4 jamais de style. 
On ne le voit pas recommencer a penser de ligne en ligne ; 
trainer peniblement des phrases, tantot precises, tan tot diffuses, 
ou l'esprit peint son embarras a chaque instant, et ne se releve 5 
que pour retomber : son elocution pleine et barmonieuse, en- 
richie des metaphores les mieux suivies, des allegories les plus 
sublimes, des images les plus pittoresques, ne presente au lec- 
teur que clarte, facilite, elegance, et rapidite. Grand, parcequ'il 
est singulier, il ne se sert de la parole que pour exprimer ses 
idees, et n'etale jamais ce luxe d'esprit qui, dans les lettres 
comme dans les etats, n'annonce que 1'indigence. Modele ac- 
compli de la poesie descriptive, il multiplie ces comparaisons 
vastes qui supposent un genie observateur, et il flatte sans cesse 

i 5 563.— 2 § 594.— 3 § 618.— 4 from y avoir .— $ App. 0. 11. § XVI. b, 



310 SELECTIONS FROM 

Poreille par les charmes de Pharrnonie imitative: en un mot, 
Fenelon donne a la prose la couleur, la melodie, Paccent, Tame 
de la poesie ; et son style, vrai, enebanteur, inimitable, trop abon- 
dant peut-etre, ressemble a sa vertu. (Maury.) 



Montesquieu. 

Montesquieu fut encore plus 1 bistorien que philosophe. 
Son imagination vive se plaisait surtout au spectacle des eve- 
nemens et des hommes. Ce ne fut point la nature bumaine, 
universelle et abstraite, qui fut Pobjet de sa contemplation ; il 
chercha les liens et les consequences des faits historiques. 
De-la resulta une etude des lois politiques et civiles, sous un 
rapport nouveau. En les comparant aux circonstances au 
milieu desquelles elles out pris naissance, il essaya de decouv- 
rir leur vrai sens. Sa politique h'a rien de dogmatique ni 
d'absolu ; elle est critique et narrative. II explique la legisla- 
tion selon les temps, les lieux, les races, les evenernens. II est 
loin pourtant de mettre en oubli les regies generates de la jus- 
tice et le sentiment moral ; rien en lui ne ressemble a Pindifle- 
rence de la fatalite. Plus vivement qu'aucun historien mo- 
derne, Montesquieu sait s'affliger sur les malbeurs ou la bonte 
de Phumanite,s'indigner contre Poppression et Piniquite. Toute- 
fois, il ne se propose jamais pour but une reforme fondamen- 
tale. Hardi dans son exaruen, il est resigne dans ses conclu- 
sions ; c'est Pesprit du jurisconsulte porte a un haut degre 
d'elevation et de lumiere, et cependant restant dans sa spbere. 
De lui date cette ecole du droit, qui se nomine bistorique, et 
qui, nee en France, fait depuis quelques annees Pbonneur de 
PAllemagne, (De Barajste.) 



La Bruyere. 

Pour La Bruyere, il me semble que je le vois : silencieux au 
milieu du monde ; recevant de tout des impressions vives qu'il 
renfermait en lui-meme ; doux a vivre, parce que rien ne 
PofTensait person n el lement ; regardant passer devant lui les 
vices et les ridicules, attentivement et avec interet, sans etre 
tente de les interrompre, comme on voit sur un tbtatre des 

1 § 220. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 311 

acteurs jouer leurs roles; pen sensible a la critique, moins en- 
core a la louange ; place au milieu cVune societe ou il se trou- 
vait inferieur de rang et de fortune, et la jugeant sans un seul 
mouvement de jalousie, sans aigreurcomme sans complaisance, 
avec la conscience calme de sa superiorite ; ennerni de cette 
devotion qui s'applaudit d'avoir donne a ses defauts une ecorce 
de secheresse et d'orgueil ; pourtant, plein d'une profonde et 
reelle veneration pour la religion, et voyant au-dessous de lui 
les petites attaques de 1'incredulite frivole ou de la philosophic. 
Enfin, il se peut 1 qu'on ignore les evcnemens de la vie de La 
Bruyere ; mais on converse avec lui des qu'on ouvre son livre. 
Aucun ecrivain, peut-etre, n'a laisss plus la trace de son 
caractere dans son langage ; ne cherchant point a donner une 
marche suivie a son livre, il a pu ne se pas assujettir aux regies 
de composition qui auraient modifie ses impressions. En n'en- 
chainant point ses pensees, en les montrant isolees, il leur a 
laisse leur caractere primitif : la sensation qu'il a recue, il la 
trace telle qu'il en a ete frappe ; on assiste a 1'erTet que pro- 
duisaient sur lui les objets ; ses expressions sont vivantes; il 
semble qu'elles frappent les yeux plutot que l'esprit. Cette 
variete de couleurs, cette maniere d'orTrir toujours 1'image au 
lieu de la description, et Pimpression au lieu du jugement ; ces 
pensees qui vont jusqu'au vif, qui atteignent juste le pointe 
caracterisque etqui prennent pied dans l'esprit du lecteur, voila 
ce qui fait vivreen societeavec La Bruyere et le fait " connaitre 
jusque dans l'arae." (Id.) 



Mahomet. 

Aux extremites de l'Asie, et sur les confins de l'Afrique, 
existait une peuple qui, par sa position et son courage, avait 
echappe aux conquetes des Perses, d'Alexandre, et des Romains. 
De ses nombreuses tribus, les unes devaient leur subsistence a 
l'agriculture, les autres avaient conserve la vie pastorale : toutes 
se livraient au commerce, et quelques unes au brigandage. Reu- 
nie par une meme origine, par une meme langage, par quel- 
ques habitudes religieuses, elles formaient une grande nation, 
dont cependant aucun lien politique n'unissait les portions 
diverses. Tout-a-coup s'eleva au milieu d'elles un bomme 
doue d'un ardent enthousiasme et d'une politique profonde, ne 

1 il se peut, it may be. 



312 SELECTIONS FROM 

avec les talens d'un poete et ceux d'un guerrier. II concoit le 
hardi projet de reunir en un seul corps les tribus Arabes, et il 
a Je courage de l'executer. Pour donner un chef a une na- 
tion jusqu'alors indomptce, il commence par elever sur les 
debris de l'ancien culte une religion plus epuree. Legislateur, 
prophete, pontife, juge, general d'armee, tous les moyens de 
subjuguer les homrnes sont entre ses mains, et il sait les em- 
ployer avec habilite et avec grandeur. 

II debite un ramas de fables, qu'il dit avoir recues du ciel ; 
mais il gagne des batailles. La priere et les plaisirs de l'amour 
partagent ses momens. Apres avoir joui 1 vingt ans d'un pou- 
voir sans bornes, dont il n'existe point d'autre exemple, il de- 
clare que, s'il a cammis une injustice, il est pret a la rcparer. 
Tout se tait : une seule femme ose reclamer une petite soinme 
de monnaie. 11 meurt; et l'enthousiasme qu'il a communique 
a son peuple va changer la face des trois parties du monde. 

(Condorcet.) 



Les Grecs et les Italiens. 

L'ltalie, ou la litterature Grecque venait d'etre 2 transported 
par les soins de Boccace et de la republique Florentine, etait le 
pays de 1'Europe le plus propre a faire revivre Pancienne 
Grece. La nature elle-meme s'est plu adoter cesdeux magni- 
fiques contrees de dons a-peu-pres semblables. Elle a mul- 
tiplie, dans Tune et dans Tautre, les sites pittoresques ; elle y a 
entassa des rochers majestueux, oreuse des vallons rians, et 
menage des cascades refraichissantes; elle a orne, com me |>our 
un jour de fete, leurs campagnes de la plus riche vegetation ; 
et tandis qn'elle a enrichi a l'envie l'ltalie et la Grece par les 
prodiges de sa puissance, elle a aussi donne aux homrnes qui 
les habitent des qualites semblables, si du moius l'on pent recon- 
naitre le caractere primitif d'un peuple, lorsqu'il a deja ete al- 
tere par les gouvernemens divers. Les qualites communes 
aux pen pies de l'ltalie et de la Grece, les qualites permanentes, 
dont le germe s'est maintenu sous tous les gouvernemens, et se 
retrouve encore, sont une imagination* vive et brillante, une 
sensibrlite ra[)idement excit< e et rapidement etouffee : enfin, le 
gout inne de tous les arts, avec des organes propres aapprecier 
ce qui est beau dans tous les genres et a le reproduire. Dans 
les fetes du peuple des campagnes, on demelerait aujourd'hui des 
homrnes en tout semblables a ceux dont les applaudissemens 

1 App. P. II. — 2 venait d'etre, had just been. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 313 

animerent le genie de Phidias, de Miehel-Ange, ou de Raphael, 
lis ornent leurs chapeaux de fleurs odoriferantes ; leur manteau 
est drape d'une maniere pittoresque, comme celui des statues 
antiques; leur langage est figure et plein de feu ; leurs traits 
expri merit toutes les passions, et en efFet ils sont susceptibles 
de Pamour le plus impetueux, de la colere la plus bouillante. 
Aucune fete ne leur parait complete si les facultes morales de 
1'homme n'y ont eu quelque part, si Peglise ou ils reunissent 
n'est ornee avec gout et d'une maniere pittoresque, si une mu- 
sique harmonieuse n'eleve leur ame vers les cieux. Leurs di- 
vertissemens portent le meme caractere : lorsque, sur leur sa- 
laire, ils ont derobe a leurs besoins une penible epargne, ils ne 
la consacrent point a se procurer des boissons enivrantes ou 
des plaisirs crapuleux ; mais ils la portent, comme un tribut, 
aux theatres, aux poetes improvisateurs, aux conteurs d'histo- 
ires qui eveillent leur imagination, et qui nourrissent leur 
esprit. L'ltalie est aujourd'hui le sen! pays ou le bouvier et 
le vigneron, le laboureur et le berger, remplissent avec leurs 
femmes et leurs enfans les salles de spectacle; c'est le seul ou 
ils puissent comprendre des tragedies qui leur representent les 
heros des temps passes, et des fabies poetiques dont le souve- 
nir ne leur est point absolument etranger. (Sismondi.) 



Les peuples de la Bet i que. 

Ils ont horreur de notre politesse ; et il taut avouer que la 
leur est grande dans leur aimable simplicite. Ils vivent tous 
ensemble sans partager les terres; chaque famille est gouver- 
nee par son chef, qui en est le veritable roi. Le pere de fa- 
mille est en droit de punir chacun de ses enfans, ou petits-enfans 
qui fait une mauvaise action : mais avant que de le punir il 
prend Pavis du reste de la famille. Ces punitions n'arrivent 
presqiie jamais ; car l'innocence des mo3urs, la bonne foi, 1'obe- 
issance, et Phorreur du vice habitent dans cette heureuse terre. 
II sernble qu'Astree, qu'on dit retiree dans le ciel, est encore 
ici-bas cachee parmi ces hommes. II ne faut point de juges 
parrni eux ; car leur propre conscience les juge. Tous les 
biens sont communs : les fruits des arbres, les legumes de la 
terre, le lait des troupeaux, sont des richesses si abondantes, 
que des peuples si sobres et si moderes n'ont pas besoin de les 
partager. Chaque famille, errante dans ce beau pays, trans- 

27 



314 SELECTIONS FROM 

porte ses tentes d'un lieu en un autre, quand elle a consume les 
fruits et epuise les paturages de l'endroit ou elle s'etait mise. 
Ainsi ils n'ont point d'interets a soutenir les uns contre les au- 
tres, et ils s'aiment tous d'un amour fraternel que rien ne trou- 
ble. C'est le retranchementdes vaines richesses et des plaisirs 
trompeurs qui leur conserve cette paix, cette union, et cette 
liberte. Ils sont tous libres, tous egaux. 

On ne voit parmi eux aucutie distinction, que celle qui vient 
de l'experience des sages vieillards, ou de la sagesse extraordi- 
naire de quelques jeunes hommes qui egalent les vieillards 
consommes en vertu. La fraude, la violence, la parjure, les 
proces, les guerres, ne font jamais entendre leur voix cruelle 
et empestee dans ce pays cheri des dieux. Jamais le sang 
humain n'a rougi cette terre ; a peine y voit-on couler celui 
des agneaux. Quand on parle a ces peuples des batailles san- 
glantes, des rapides conquetes, des renversemens d'etats qu'on 
voit dans les autres nations, ils ne peuvent 1 assez s'etonner. 
Quoi ! disent-ils, les hommes' 2 ne sont-ils pas assez mortels, 
sans se donner encore les uns aux autres une mort precipitee ? 
la vie est si courte ! et il seinble qu'elle leur paraisse trop 
longue! sont-ils sur la terre pour se dechirer les uns les au- 
tres, et pour se rendre mutuellement malheureux ? 

(Fe'nelon.) 



Un Combat de Taureaux. 

Au milieu du champ est un vaste cirque environne de nom- 
breux gradins ; c'est la que 1'auguste reine, habile dans cet art 
si doux, de gagner les cceurs de son peuple en s'occupant de 
ses plaisirs, invite souvent ses guerriers au spectacle le plus 
cheri des Espagnols. La, les jeunes chefs, sans cuirasse, ve- 
tus d'un simple habit de soie, armes seulement d'une lance, 
viennent, sur de rapides coursiers, attaquer et vaincre des tau- 
reaux sauvages. Des soldats a pied, plus legers encore, les 
cheveux enveloppes dans des reseaux, tiennent d'une main un 
voile de pourpre, de l'autre des lances aigues. L'alcade pro- 
clame la loi de ne secourir aucun combattant; de ne leur lais- 
ser d'autres armes que la lance pour immoler, le voile de pour- 
pre pour se defend re. Les rois, entoures de leur cour, presid- 
ent a ces jeux sanglans ; et l'armee entiere, occupant les im- 
menses amphitheatres, temoigne par des cris de joie, par des 

1 App. O. II. § XI11. — 2 § 287, note. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 315 

transports de plaisir et d'ivresse, quel est son amour effrene 
])our ces antiques combats. 

Le signal se donne, la barriere s'ouvre, le taureau s'elance 
au milieu du cirque; mais, au bruit de mille fanfares, aux cris, 
a la vue des spectateurs, il s'arrete, inquiet et trouble; ses na- 
seaux fument ; ses regards bnilans errent sur les amphithea- 
tres ; il semble egalement en proie a la surprise, a la fureur. 
Tout-a-coup il se precipite sur un cavalier qui le blesse, et fuit 
rapidement a l'autre bout. Le taureau s'irrite, le poursuit de 
pres, frappe a coups redoubles la terre, et fond sur le voile 
eclatant que lui presente un combattant k pied. L'adroit 
Espagnol, dans le meme instant, evite a la fois sa rencontre, 
suspend a ses cornes le voile leger, et lui darde une fleche 
aigue, qui de nouveau fait couler son sang. Perce bientot de 
toutes les lances, blesse de ces traits penetrans dont le fer 
courbe reste dans la plaie, l'animal bondit dans 1'arene, pousse 
d'horribles mugissemens, s'agite en parcourant le cirque, se- 
coue les fleches nombreuses enfoncees dans son large coo, 
fait voler ensemble les cailloux broyes, les lambeaux de pour- 
pre sanglans, les flotsd'ecume rougie, et tombe enfin epuise 
d'efforts, de colere, et de douleur. 

Ce fut dans un de ces combats que le temeraire Cortez pensa 
terminer une vie destinee a de si grands exploits. Brulant de 
se signaler aux yeux de la belle Mendoze, qui depuis long- 
temps possede son cceur, Cortez, sur un Andalous, blessait et 
fuyait un taureau furieux. Malgre le peril dont il est menace, 
le jeune amant regarde toujours la beaute qui toujours l'occupe, 
lorsqu'il voit tomber dans 1'arene la fleur d'oranger qui parait 
son sein. Cortez se precipite a terre, court, se baisse, et le 
taureau vole; il va frapper Pimprudent Cortez. Un cri de 
Mendoze l'avertit. Cortez, sans quitter la fleur, dirige d'un OBil 
sur sa lance a Tepaule de l'animal, qu'il jette expirant sur le 
sable. (Florian.) 



D e la Nature. 

La nature est le systeme des lois etablies par le Createur 
pour l'existence des choses et pour la succession des etres. 
La nature n'est point 1 une chose, car cette chose serait tout : la 
nature n'est point un etre, car cet 6tre serait Dieu ; mais on 
peut la considerer comme une puissance vive, immense, qui 

1 App. O. II. § V. 



316 SELECTIONS FROM 

embrasse tout, qui anime tout, et qui, subordonnee a celle du 
Premier Etre, n'a commence d'agir'que par son ordre, et n'agit 
encore que parson concours ou son consentement. Cette puis- 
sance est de la puissance divine la partie qui se manifeste ; 
c'est en merne temps la cause et l'eflfet, le mode et la substance, 
le dessein et Pouvrage: bien di fie rente de Part by main dont les 
productions ne sont que des ouvrages morts, la nature est elle- 
meme une ouvrage perpetuellement vivant, un ouvrier sans 
cesse aetif, qui sait tout employer, qui, travaillant d'apres soi- 
meme, toujours sur le meme fonds, bien loin de Pepuiser, le rend 
inepuisable : le temps, l'espace, et la matiere sont ses moyens, 
l'univers son objet, le mouvement et la vie son but. 

Les effets de cette puissance sont les phenomenes du monde ; 
les ressorts qu'elle emploie sont des forces vives, que l'espace 
et le temps ne peuvent que mesurer et limiter sans jamais les 
detruire ; des forces qui se balaneent, qui se confondent, qui 
s'opposent sans pouvoir s'aneantir ; les unes penetrent et trans- 
portent les corps, les autres les echauffent et les animent; Pat- 
traction et Pirn pulsion sont les deux principaux instrnmens de 
Paction de cette puissance sur les corps bruts ; la chaleur et les 
molecules organiques vivantes sont les principes actifs qu'elle 
met en ceuvre pour la formation et le developpement des etres 
organises. 

Avec de tels moyens que ne peut la nature ? Elle pourrait 
tout si elle pouvait aneantir et creer ; mais Dieu s'est reserve 
ces deux extremes de pouvoir: aneantir et creer sont les attri- 
buts de la Toute-puissance ; alterer, changer, detruire, develop- 
per, renouveller, produire, sont les seuls droits qu'il a voulu ceder. 
Ministre de ses ordres irrevocables, depositaire de ces immua- 
bles decrets, la nature ne s'ecarte jamais des loisqui lui ont ete 
prescrites ; elle n'allere rien aux plans qui lui ont ete traces, et 
dans tous ses ouvrages elle presente le sceau de PEternel : cette 
empreinte divine, prototype inalterable des existences, est le 
modele sur lequel elle opere ; modele dont tous les traits sont 
exprimes en caracteres ineffacables, et prononces pour jamais ; 
modele toujours neuf, que le nombre des monies ou des copies, 
quelque infini qu'il soit, ne fait que renouveller. (Buffon.) 



De la Picte et de 1 ' Hy poc risie . 

Tendre Piete ! vertu sublime ! vous meritez tous nos re- 
spects, vous elevez Phomme au-dessus de son ^tre, vous Pap- 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 317 

prochez du Createur, vous en faites stir la terre un habitant des 
cieux. Divine Modestie ! vous meritez tout notre amour ; vous 
faites seule la gloire du sage, vous faites aussi la decence du 
saint etat des ministres de l'autel ; vous n'etes point un senti- 
ment acquis par le commerce des hommes, vous etes un don 
du ciel, une grace qu'il accorde en secret a quelques ames pri- 
t\lrgie.es pour rendre la vertu plus aimable. Vous rendriez 
meme, s'il etait possible, le vice rnoins choquant ; mais jamais 
vous n'avez habite dans un cceur corrornpu ; la honte y a pris 
votre place ; elle prend aussi vos traits lorsqu'elle vein sortir de 
ces replis obscurs ou le crime l'a fait naitre ; elle couvre de votre 
voile sa confusion, sa bassesse ; sous ce lache deguisementelle 
ose done paraitre ; mais elle soutient mal la lumiere du jour, 
elle a l'ceil trouble et le regard louche, elle marche a pas 
obliques dans des routes souterraines ou le sou peon la suit ; et 
lorsqu'elle croit echapper a tous les yeux, un rayon de la verite 
luit; il perce le image; l'illusion se dissipe, le prestige s'evan- 
ouit, le scandale seul reste, et l'on voit a nu toutes les difformi- 
tes du vice grimacant la vertu. 

Mais dctournons les yeux, n'achevons pas le portrait hideux 
de la noire hypocrisie ; lie disons pas que, quand elle a perdu 
le masque de la honte, elle arbore le panache de Porgueil, et 
qu'alors elle s'appelle impudence. Ces monstres odieux sont 
indignes de faire ici contraste dans le tableau des vertus ; ils 
souilleraient nos pinceaux ; que la modestie, la piote, la modera- 
tion, la sagesse, soient mes seuls objets et mes seuls modeles. 

(Id.) 



L'Art d'Ecrire. 

Celui qui peint la pens^e a du penser long-temps pour l'ex- 
pritner dans toute son energie. Or, la parole est une peinture, 
et le style n'est que la parole icrite. Quel est le secret du 
style ? e'est de reproduire au-dehors, avec un art fidele, tout ce 
qu'on a concu dans le secret de la meditation au-dedans de 
soi-meme. L'ecrivain porte en son esprit un modele interieur 
dont il veut representer l'image. Des expressions diverses 
tour-a-tour se presentent; une analyse rapide en decompose 
les nuances fortes ou delicates, elevees ou profondes. Que de 
vues per^antes et varices pour comparer et pour choisir ! Ces 
expressions elles-memes amenent d'autres idees; car el les en 
sont a la fois PefFet et la cause. Si la conception est pauvre et 
*27 



318 SELECTIONS FROM 

languissante, le style qui en est l'image aura necessairement le 
meme caractere. Alors line voix secrete semble dire a 1'ecri- 
vain : Medite davantage, penetre plus avant dans ta pensee ; 
c'est de sa substance meme, pour ainsi dire, qu'il faut tirer sa 
forme et sa ressemblance. L'expression et la pensee ont done 
une commune origine, qui se decele dans la conformite de 
leurs traits: des rapports intimes et mysterieux les attachent 
Tune a l'autre, comme Fame au corps et le principe a ses con- 
sequences. 

Pen atteste non seuiement les poetes et les orateurs, mate 
ces hommes qui sont l'honneur des sciences, et qui dans un 
langage digne d'elles nous racontent les revolutions de la terre 
et du ciel, et ceux qui embellissent d'une sage elegance les re- 
cherches de Terudition ou les theories des beaux-arts ; je les 
atteste tons sans crainte : ils vous diront mieux que moi com- 
bien ce travail est utile et fecond ; ils vous diront qu'en per- 
fectionnant le gout on perfectionne aussi 1'intelligence. Oui, 
le choix d'un seul mot qui doit donner plus de force ou de 
grace au discours occupe souvent l'esprit tout entier, et 1'esprit 
en augmente de souplesse et d'energie. Quoi ! s'ecriera 1'ig- 
norance, un mot vaut-il tant d'efForts ! Mais ce mot necessaire 
avait fui long-temps; mais quand il est saisi dans un moment 
favorable, il acheve, il developpe, il eclaire, il embellit la pen- 
see. C'est par lui qu'elle est vivante. Que dis-je ? il la per- 
petue pour jamais, il va la rendre universelle. Otez ce mot, 
changez-le seuiement de place, et ce que vous admirez n'existe 

plus, (FONTAxNES.) 



D e la Grace. 

Dans les personnes, dans les ouvrages, grace signifie, non 
seuiement ce qui plait, mais ce qui plait avec attrait. C'est 
pourquoi les anciens avaient imagine que la deesse de la beau- 
te ne devait jamais paraitre sans les Graces. La beaute ne de- 
plait jamais, mais elle peut etre depourvue de ce charme secret 
qui invite a la regarder, qui remplit l'ame d'un sentiment doux. 
Les graces dans la figure, dans le maintien, dans Taction, dans 
les discours, dependent de ce merite qui attire. Une belle per- 
sonne n'aura point de graces dans le visage, si la bouche est 
fermee sans sourire, si les yeux sont sans douceur. Le scrieux 
n'est jamais gracieux : il n'attire point ; il approche trop du 
severe, qui rebute. 



FRENCH LITERATURE* 319 

Un homme bien fait, dont Ie maintien est mal assure ou g&- 
ne, la demarche precipitee ou pesante, les gestes lourds, n'a 
point de grace, parcequ'il n'a rien de doux, de liant, dans son 
exterieur. La voix d'un orateur qui manquera d'inflexion et 
de douceur sera sans grace. II en est de merae dans tous les 
arts. La proportion, la beaute, peuvent n'etre point gracieuses. 
On ne peut dire que les pyramides d'Egypte aient des graces. 
On ne pourrait le dire du colosse de Rhodes comme de la Ve- 
nus de Guide. Tout ce qui est uniquement dans le genre fort 
et vigoureux a un merite qui n'est pas celui des graces. Ce 
serait mal connaitre Michel Ange et le Caravage, que de leur 
attribuer les graces de l'Albane. Le sixieme livre de 1'Eneide 
est sublime: le quatrieme a plus de graces. Quelques odes 
galantes d'Horace respirent les graces, comme quelques unes 
de ses epitres enseignent la raison. 

II semble qu'en general le petit, le joli en tout genre, soit 
plus susceptible de graces que le grand. On louerait mal une 
oraison funebre, une tragedie, un sermon, si on ne leur donnait 
que Tepithete gracieux. 

Ce n'est pas qu'il y ait un senl genre d'ouvrage qui puisse 
etre bon en etant oppose aux graces; car leur oppose est la 
rudesse, le sauvage, la secheresse. L'Hercule Farnese ne de- 
vait point avoir les graces du Belvedere et de l'Antinous ; 
inais il n'est ni rude ni agreste. L'incendie de Troie, dans 
Virgile, n'est point decrit avec les graces d'une tlegie de Ti- 
bulle ; il plait par des beautts fortes. Un ouvrage peut done 
etre sans graces, sans que cet ouvrage ait le moindre desagre- 
ment. Le terrible, l'horrible, la description, la peinture d'un 
monstre, exigent qu'on s'eloigne de tout ce qui est gracieux, 
mais non pas qu'on affecte uniquement 1'oppose. Car si un 
artiste, en quelque genre que ce soit, n'exprime que des choses 
affreuses, s'il ne les adoucit point par des contrastes agrcables, 
il rebutera. La grace, en peinture, en sculpture, consiste dans 
la mollesse des contours, dans une expression douce; et la 
peinture a par-dessus la sculpture la grkce de I'union des par- 
ties, celle des figures qui s'animent l'une par 1'autre, et qui se 
pretent des agivmens par leurs attributs et par leurs regards. 
Les graces de la diction, soit en eloquence, soit en poesie, de- 
pendent du choix des mots, de 1'harmonie des phrases, et en- 
core plus de la delicatesse des idees et des descriptions riantes. 
L'abus des graces est l'anvterie, comme l'abus du sublime est 
l'ampoule. Toute perfection est pres d'un defaut. 

(Voltaire.) 



320 SELECTIONS FROM 

L ' Eloquence. 

L'eloquence, qui domine quelquefois si puissament les etats, 
est soumise a 1'influence des gouvernemens ; et l'on pourrait, 
en suivant ses vicissitudes, retrouver toute l'histoire morale et 
politique des peuples. Sous le dcspotisme, il n'y a pas de 
place pour I'eloquence, non plus que pour la gloire. Les re- 
volutions deviennent son theatre et son ecueil : elle y brille 
pour mourir frappee par le glaive ; et les tetes des orateurs 
sont attachtes a la tribune sanglante. Elle s'afTaiblit et s'enerve 
dans la paix des monarchies heureuses, qui redoutent l'agita- 
tion, de peur du changement. Les republiques memes, que 
Ton croit le domaine de I'eloquence, ne sont pas toujours faites 
pour elle. L'eloquence ne s'elevera pas dans ces dunocraties 
economes et modestes, ou la liberte n'est pas un effort d'he- 
ro'isme, une conquete de l'enthousiasme, mais un avantage du 
sol, et, pour ainsi dire, un present de la pauvrete : la Suisse n'a 
jamais eu d'orateurs. L'tloquence ne s'elevera pas dans ces 
republiques factieuses ou les citoyens aiment encore plus la 
vengeance que la liherte, ou la force decide incessam merit, et 
signale ses victoires successives par 1'exil et la mort : Florence 
n'a jamais eu d'orateurs. L'eloquence ne montrera pas son 
genie dans ces republiques industrieuses et commercautes, ou 
la liberte meme n'est estimee que comme un instrument de 
richesses, ou le patriotisme n'est qu'un calcul d'interet, ou les 
plus grands sacrifices sont des speculations plutot que des ver- 
tus : on n'a jamais vante les orateurs de Carthage ; on ne con- 
nait pas les orateurs de la Hollande . , . LVIoquence n'osera 
pas naitre dans ces aristocraties ombrageuses ou l'activite du 
despotisme est rendue plus terrible par le nornbre de ceux qui 
l'exercent, ou des republicains tyranniques redoutent d'autant 
plus la liberte qu'ils lui doivent leur puissance et regnent en son 
nom : a Venise on ne parlait pas. 

L'eloquence a tout a la fois besoin de la violence des pas- 
sions et de l'autorite toute-puissunte des lois. Mais cet etat est 
une espece de prodige difficile et peu durable. Ainsi, dans 
Athenes, dans Rome, l'eloquence n'eut que de courts inter- 
valles de gloire, an moment meme ou la liberte allait p^rir par 
la guerre civile et par la conquete. Etrange fatal ite des insti- 
tiitions et du genie de 1'homme ! Quand IVloquence s'eleve au 
milieu des institutions faites pour elle, trop souvent elle assiste 
a leur ruine, et meurt sur leurs debris : elle meurt avec De- 
mosthene, Antoine, et Ciceron. Quand l'eloquence eleve une 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 321 

t£te bardie, au milieu des institutions qui la repoussem, elle est 
plus forte pour detruire qu'elle ne l'avait ete pour sauver, mais 
elle meurt encore sur les mines qu'elle a faites. Ainsi Rienzi, 
qui dans la Rome pontificate pretendait troqver la Rome des 
Scipions; Rienzi, dont l'antiquite eut fait un grand homme, 
mais qui, laisse seul a lui-meme entre les debris du Colisee et 
le3 inscriptions effacees des tombeaux entr'ouverts, redemandait 
la tribune des Graccbes, et permettait de creer des Romains; 
Rienzi, avec son audace et son genie, ne semblait qu'un sedi- 
tieux, et mourait oublie. (Villemakn.) 



La Religion des Romains. 

Ce ne fut ni la crainte ni la piete qui etablit la religion chez 
les Romains, mais la necessite ou sont toutes les societes d'en 
avoir une. Les premiers rois ne furent pas moins attentifs a 
regler le culte et les ceremonies, qu'a donner des lois et batir 
des mu rail les. 

Je trouve cette difference entre les legislateurs Romains et 
ceux des autres peuples — que les premiers firent la religion pour 
l'etat, et les autres l'etat pour la religion. Romulus, Tatius, et 
Numa asservirent les dieux a la politique : le culte et les cere- 
monies qu'ils instituerent furent trouves si sages, que, lorsque 
les rois furent chasses, le joug de la religion fut le seul dont ce 
peuple, dans sa fureur pour la liberte, n'osa s'afFrancbir. 

Quand les legislateurs Romains etablirent la religion, ils ne 
penserent point a la reformation des mceurs, ni a donner des 
principes de morale ; ils ne voulurent point gener des gens 
qu'ils ne connaissaient pas encore. Ils n'eurent done d'abord 
qu'une vue generale, qui etait d'inspirer, a un peuple qui ne 
craignait rien, la crainte des dieux, et de se servir de cette 
crainte pour le conduire a leur fantaisie. 

Les successeurs de Numa n'oserent point faire ce que ce 
prince n'avait point fait : le peuple, qui avait beaucoup perdu 
de sa ferocite et de sa rudesse, etait devenu capable d'une plus 
grande discipline. II eut ete facile d'ajouter aux ceremonies 
de la religion des principes et des regies de morale dont elle 
manquait ; mais les legislateurs des Romains etaient trop clair- 
voyants pour ne point connaitre combien une pareille reforma- 
tion eut ete dangereuse. C'eut ete convenir (jue la religion etait 
defectueuse ; c't^tait lui donner des ages, et afFaiblir son auto- 
rite en voulant l'etablir. La sagesse des Romains leur fit pren- 



322 SELECTIONS FROM 

dre un meilleur parti en etablissant de nouvelles lois. Les in- 
stitutions humaines peuvent bien changer, mais les divines 
doivent etre immuables comme les dieux. 

(Montesquieu.) 



V a n i t e . 

J'etais l'autre jour dans une societe ou je me divertis assez 
bien. II y avait 1 la des femmes de tous les ages ; une de 
quatre-vingts ans, 2 une de soixante, une de quarante qui avait 
une niece de vingt a vingt-deux. Un certain instinct me fit 
approcher de cette derniere, et elle me dit a l'oreille : " Que dites 
vous de ma tante, qui, a son age, veut avoir des amans, et fait 
encore la jolie ?" " Elle a tort, 3 lui dis-je ; c'est un dessein qui ne 
convient qu'a vous." Un moment apres, je me trouvai aupres de 
sa tante, qui me dit: "Que dites-vous de cette femme qui a pour le 
moins soixante ans, qui a passe aujourd'hui plus d'une heure a sa 
toilette ?" " C'est du temps perdu, lui dis-je ; et il faut avoir vos 
charmes pour devoir y songer." J'allai a cette malheureuse 
femme de soixante ans, et la plaignais dans mon ame, lorsqu'elle 
me dit a l'oreille : u Y a-t-il rien de si ridicule ? Voyez cette 
femme qui a quatre-vingts ans, et qui met des rubans couleur- 
de-feu : elle veut faire la jeune, et elle y reussit ; car cela ap- 
proche de l'enfance." Ah, bon Dieu ! dis-je en moi-meme, ne 
sentirons-nous jamais que le ridicule des autres ? C'est peut- 
etre un bonheur, disais-je ensuite, que nous trouvionsde la con- 
solation dans les faiblesses d'autrui. Cependant j'etais en train 
de me divertir, et je dis : Nous avons assez monte ; descendons 
a present, et commencons par la vieille qui est au sornmet. 
<l Madame, vous vous ressemblez si fort, cette dame a qui je 
viens de parler et vous, qu'il semble que vous soyez deux soeurs ; 
je vous crois, a-peu-pres, de meme age." "Vraiment, Mon- 
sieur, me dit-elle, lorsque l'une mourra, l'autre devra avoir 
grand'peur : 4 je ne crois pas qu'il y ait d'elle a moi deux jours de 
difference." Quand je tins cette femme dicrepite, j'allai a celle 
de soixante ans. "II faut, madame, que vous decidiez un pari 
que j'ai fait: j'ai gage que cette dame et vous, lui montrant la 
femme de quarante ans, etioz de meme age." " Ma foi, dit-elle, 
je ne crois pas qu'il y ait six mois de difference." Bon, m'y 
voila; 5 continuons. Je descendis encore, et j'allai a la femme 
de quarante ans. "Madame, faites-moi la grace de me dire si 

1 il y avait, there were. — 2 App. J. § 111. — 3 a tort, is wrong. 
— 4 § 202. — 6 m'y voila, so far so good. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 323 

c'est pour rire que vous appellez 1 cette demoiselle, qui est a 
l'autre table, votre niece ? Vous etes aussi jeuue qu'elle ; elle a 
meme quelque chose dans le visage de passe, que vous n'avez 
certainement pas ; et ces couleurs vives qui paraisseut sur 
votre teint." . . " Attendez, me dit-elle: je suis sa tante ; mais 
sa mere avait pour le moins viugt-cinq ans plus que moi : nous 
n'etions pas de meme lit; j'ai oui dire a feu ma soeur que sa 
fille et moi naquimes la meme annee." " Je le disais bien, 
madame ; et je n'avais pas tort d'etre etonne." 

Mon cher Usbek, les femmes qui se sentent finir d'avance, 
par la perte de leurs agremens, voudraient reculer vers la jeu- 
nesse. Eh ! comment ne chercheraient-elles pas a tromper 
lesautres? elles font tous leurs efforts pour se tromper elles- 
m£mes, et se derober a la plus affligeante de toutes les idees. 

(Id. — Lettres Persanes.) 



Extreme Variete de la Nature. 

La premiere chose qui s'offre a J'homme quand il se regarde, 
c'est son corps, e'est-a-dire une certaine portion de matiere qui 
lui est propre. Mais, pour comprendre ce qu'elle est, il faut 
qu'il la compare avec tout ce qui est au-dessus de lui, et tout 
ce qui est au-dessous, afin de reconnaitre ses justes bornes. 

Qu'il ne s'arrete done pas a regarder simplernent les objets 
qui 1'environnent ; qu'il contemple la nature entiere dans sa 
haute et pleine majeste ; qu'il considere cette eclatante lumiere, 
mise comme une lampe eternelle pour eclairer l'univers; que 
la terre lui paraisse comme un point, au prix du vaste tour que 
cet astre decrit, et qu'il s'etonne de ce que ce vaste tour lui- 
meme n'est qu'un point tres delicat, a l'egard de celui que les 
astres qui roulent dans le firmament embrassent. Mais si no- 
tre vue s'arrete la, que 1'imagination passe outre, elle se lassera 
plutot de concevoir, que la nature de fournoir. Tout ce que 
nous voyons du monde n'est qu'un trait imperceptible dans 
l'ample sein de la nature : nulle idee n'approche de l'etendue 
de ses espaces. Nous avons beau 2 enfler nos conceptions, nous 
n'enfantons que des atomes au prix de la rtalite des choses. 
C'est une sphere infmie, dont le centre est partout, la circonfe- 
rence nulle }>art. Enfin, c'est un des plus grands caracteres 
sensibles de la toute-puissance de Dieu, que notre imagination 
se perde dans cette pensee. 

1 § 543. — 2 nous avons beau, it is of no use for us. 



824 SELECTIONS FROM 

Mais pour presenter a l'homme un autre prodige aussi eton- 
nant, qu'il recherche dans ce qu'il connait les choses les plus 
dedicates ; qu'un ciron par exemple, lui offre dans la petitesse 
de son corps des parties incomparablement plus petites, des 
jambesavec des jointures, des veines, des humeurs dans ce sang, 
des vapeurs dans ces gouttes; que, divisant encore ces derni- 
eres choses, il epuise ses forces et ses conceptions, et que le 
dernier objet ou il peut arriver soit maintenant celui de notre 
discours ; il pensera peut-etre que c'est la l'extreme petitesse de 
la nature. Je veux lui peindre non seulement 1'univers visible, 
mais encore tout ce qu'il est capable de concevoir de l'immen- 
site de la nature dans Tenceinte de cet atome imperceptible.. . 
Qu'il se perde dans ces merveilles, aussi etonnantes par leur 
petitesse que les autres par leur etendue. Car qui n'admirera 
que notre corps, qui tantot n'etait pas perceptible dans 1'univers 
imperceptible lui-meme dans le sein du tout, soit maintenant 
un colosse, un monde, ou plutot un tout a l'egard de la derni- 
ere petitesse ou l'on ne peut arriver? (Pascal.) 



La Paresse. 

La paresse est de toutes nos passions celle qui nous est le 1 
plus inconnue a nous-memes. Nulle autre n'est plus ardente 
et plus maligne, quoique les dommages qu'elle cause soient 
tres caches. Si nous considerons attentivement son influence, 
nous verrons qu'en toute occasion elle se rend maitresse de nos 
sentimens, de nos interets, et de nos plaisirs : c'est le rtmora 
qui arrete les plus grands vaisseaux, c'est une bonace plus dan- 
gereuse aux plus importantes affaires que lesecueilset lestem- 
p^tes. Le repos de la paresse est un charme secret de l'ame, 
qui suspend nos plus ardentes poursuites et nos plus fermes 
resolutions. (Rochefoucault.) 



M e p r i s de la M o r t . 

Apres avoir parle de la faus^ete de tant de vertus apparentes, 
il est raisonnable de dire quelque chose de la faussete du me- 

1 § 211. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 325 

pris de la mort : j'entends parler de ce rnepris de la raort que 
les payens se vantent de tirer de leurs propres forces sans 
l'esperanee d'une meilleure vie. II y a de la difference entre 
souffrir la mort constamment, et la mepriser. Le premier est 
assez ordinaire; mais je crois que l'autre n'est jamais sincere. 
On a ecrit neanmoins tout ce qui peut le plus persuader que 
la mort n'est point un mal ; et les homines les plus faibles aussi 
bien que les heros, ont do line mille exemples celebres pour 
etablir cette opinion. Cependant je doute que personne de 
bon sens l'ait jamais cru ; et la peine que l'on prend pour le 
persuader aux autres et a soi-meme fait assez voir que cette 
entreprise n'est pas aisee. On peut avoir divers sujets de de- 
gouts dans la vie ; mais on n'a jamais raison de mepriser la 
mort. Ceux meme qui se la donnent volontairement ne la 
comptent pas pour si peu de chose, et ils s'en etonnent et la 
rejettent comme les autres lorsqu'elle vientaeux par une autre 
voie que cellequ'ilsont choisie. L'intgaliteque Ton remarque 
dans le courage d'un n ombre infini de vaillans homines vient 
de ce que la mort se decouvre differemment a leur imagination, 
et y parait plus presente en un temps qu'en un autre. Ainsi 
il arrive qu'apres avoir meprise ce qu'ils ne connaissaient pas, 
ils craignent enfin ce qu'ils connaissent. II faut eviterde 1'eu- 
visager avec toutes ses circonstances, si on ne veut pas croire 
qu'elle soit le plus grand de tons les maux. Les plus habiles 
et les plus braves sont ceux qui prennent de plus honnetes pre- 
textes pour s'empecher de la considerer ; mais tout homme qui 
la sait voir telle qu'elle est, trouve que c'est une chose epouvanta- 
ble. La necessite de mourir faisait toute la Constance des phi- 
losophes. Ils croyaient qu'il fallait aller de bonne grace ou l'on 
ne saurait s'empecher d'aller ; et ne pouvant eterniser leur vie, 
il n'y avait rien qu'ils ne fissent pour eterniser leur reputation, 
et sauver du naufrage ce qui en peutetre garanti. Contentons- 
nous, pour faire bonne mine 1 , de ne nous pas dire a nous- 
memes tout ce que nous en pensons, et esperons plus de notre 
temperament que de ces faibles raisonnemens qui nous font 
croire que nous pouvons approcher de la mort avec indiffe- 
rence. La gloire de mourir avec fermete, l'esperance d'etre 
regrette, le desir de laisser une belle reputation, l'assurance 
d'etre affranchi des miseres de la vie, et de ne dependre plus 
des caprices de la fortune, sont des remedes qu'on ne doit pas 
rejeter ; mais on ne doit pas croire aussi qu'ils soient infaillibles. 

1 faire bonne mine, to appear well. 
28 



326 SELECTIONS FROM 

lis font, pour nous assurer, ce qu'une simple haie fait souvent a 
la guerre pour assurer ceux qui doivent approcher d'un lieu 
d'ou l'on tire. Quand on en est eloigne, on s'imagine qu'elle 
peut mettre a couvert 1 ; mais quand on en est proche on trouve 
que c'est un faible secours. C'est nous flatter, de croire que 
la mort nous paraisse de pres ce que nous en avons juge de 
loin, et que nos sentimens, qui ne sont que faiblesse, soient 
d'une trempe assez forte pour ne point souffrir d'atteinte par la 
plus rude de toutes les epreuves. C'est aussi mal connaitre 
les effets de l'amour-propre, que de penser qu'il puisse nous 
aider a compter pour rien ce qui le doit necessairement de- 
truire ; et la raison, dans laquelle on croit trouver tant de res- 
sources, est trop faible en cette rencontre pour nous persuader 
ce que nous voulons. C'est elle au contraire qui nous trahit le 
plus souvent, et qui, au lieu de nous inspirer le mepris de la 
mort, sert a nous decouvrir ce qu'elle a d'affreux et de terrible. 
Tout ce qu'elle peut faire pour nous est de nous conseiller d'en 
detourner les yeux pour les arreter sur d'autres objets. Caton 
et Brutus en choisirent d'illustres. Un laquais se contenta, il 
y a quelque temps, de danser sur l'echafaud ou il allait etre 
roue. Ainsi, bien que les motifs soient differents, ils pro- 
duisent les memes effets ; de sorte qu'il est vrai que, quelque 
disproportion qu'il y ait entre les grands hommes et les gens 
du commun, 2 on a vu mille fois les uns et les autres recevoir la 
mort d'un meme visage ; mais c'a 3 toujours ete avec cette diffe- 
rence, que, dans le mepris que les grands hommes font paraitre 
pour la mort, c'est l'amour de la gloire qui leur en ote la vue ; 
et dans les gens du commun, ce n'est qu'un effet de leur peu 
de lumieres, qui les empeche de connaitre la grandeur de leur 
mal et leur laisse la liberie de penser a autre chose. (Id.) 



La Mort. 

La mort, mon fils, est un bien pour tous les hommes; elle 
est la nuit de ce jour inquiet qu'on appelle la vie. C'est dans 
le sommeil de la mort que reposent pour jamais les maladies, 
les douleurs, les chagrins, les craintes, qui agitent sans cesse 
les malheureux vivans. Examinez les hommes qui paraissent 
les plus heureux : vous verrez qu'ils ont achete leur pretendu 

1 a couvert j under cover. — 2 gens du commun, common people. — 
3 c'a, it has. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 327 

bonheur bien cherement ; la consideration publique, par des 
maux domestiques ; la fortune, par la perte de la sante ; le 
plaisir si rare d'etre aiine, par des sacrifices continuels: et sou- 
vent, a la fin d'une vie sacrifice aux interets d'autrui, ils ne 
voient autour d'eux que des amis faux et des parens ingrats. 
Mais Virginie a ete heureuse jusqu'au dernier moment. Elle 
Pa ete avec nous par les biens de la nature ; loin de nous, par 
ceux de la vertu : et meme, dans le moment terrible ou nous 
1'avons vue perir, elle etait encore heureuse ; car, soit qu'elle 
jetat les yeux sur une colonie entiere, a qui elle causait une 
desolation universelle, ou sur vous, qui couriez avec tant d'in- 
trepidite a son secours, elle a vu combien elle nous etait chere 
a tous. Elle s'est fortifiee contre l'avenir par le souvenir de 
l'innocence de sa vie, et elle a recu alors le prix que le ciel 
reserve a la vertu, tin courage superieur au danger. Elle a 
presente a la mort un visage serein. 

Mon fils, Dieu donne a la vertu tous les evenemens de la 
vie a supporter, pour faire voir qu'elle seule peut en faire 
usage, et y trouver du bonheur et de la gloire. Quand il lui 
reserve une reputation illustre, il l'eleve sur un grand theatre, 
et la met aux prises 1 avec la mort ; alors son courage sert d'ex- 
emple, et le souvenir de ses malheurs recoit a jamais un tribut 
de larmes de la posterite. Voila le monument immortel qui 
lui est reserve sur une terre ou tout passe, et ou la memoire 
meme de la plupart des rois est bientot ensevelie dans un eter- 
nel oubli. 

Mais Virginie existe encore. Mon fils, voyez que tout 
change sur la terre, et que rien ne s'y perd. Aucun art hu- 
main ne pourrait aneantir la plus petite particule de matiere ; 
et ce qui fut raisonnable, sensible, aimant, vertueux, religieux, 
aurait peri, lorsque les elemens dont il etait revetu sont inde- 
structibles? Ah! si Virginie a ete heureuse avec nous, elle 
l'est maintenant bien davantage. II y a un Dieu, mon fils: 
toute la nature 1'annonce ; je n'ai pas besoin de vous le prou- 
ver. II n'y a que la mechancete des homines qui leur fasse 
nier une justice qu'ils craignent. Son sentiment est dans votre 
cceur, ainsi que ses ouvrages sont sous vos yeux. Croyez-vous 
done qu'il laisse Virginie sans recompense ? Croyez-vous que 
cette meme puissance, qui avait revetu cette ame si noble d'une 
forme si belle, ou vous sentiez un art divin, n'aurait pu la tirer 
des flots? que celui qui a arrange le bonheur actuel des hom- 

1 aux prises, in conflict. 



328 SELECTIONS FROM 

mes par des lois que vous ne connaissez pas, ne puisse en pre- 
parer un autre a Virginie par des lois qui vous sont egalement 
inconnues ? Quand nous etionsdans le neant, si nous eussions 
ete capables de penser, aurions-nous pu nous former une idee 
de notre existence ? Et maintenant que nous sommes dans 
cette existence tenebreuse et fugitive, pouvons-nous prevoir ce 
qu-il y a au-dela de la mort, par ou nous en devons sortir ? 
Dieu a-t-il besoin, comme 1'homme, du petit globe de notre 
terre pour servir de theatre a son intelligence et a sa bonte ? 
et n'a-t-il pu propager la vie humaine que dans les champs de 
la mort? II n'y a pas dans l'ocean une settle goutte d'eau qui 
ne soit pleine d'etres vivans qui ressortissent a nous ; et H 
n'existerait rien pour nous parmi tant d'astres qui roulent sur 
nos tetes ! Quoi ! il n'y aurait d'intelligeuce supreme et de 
bont£ divine precise-men t que la ou nous sommes ; et, dans 
ces globes rayonnans et innombrables, dans ces champs in- 
finis de lumiere qui les environnent, que ni les orages ni les 
nuits n'obscurcissent jamais, il n'y aurait qu'un espace vain et 
un neant eternel ! Si nous, qui ne nous sommes rien donne, 
osions assigner des bornes a la puissance de laquelle nous 
avons tout rec^u, nous pourrions croire que nous sommes ici 
sur les limites de son empire, ou la vie se debat avec la mort* 
et l'innocence avec la tyrannic (St. Pierre.) 



Frag i lite humaine. 

Qu'est-ce que ma substance, 6 grand Dieu ? J'entre dans la 
vie pour en sortir bientot : je viens me montrer comme les au- 
tres ; apres il faudra disparaitre. Tout nous appelle a la mort. 
La nature, comme si elle etait presque envieuse du bien qu'elle 
nous a fait, nous declare souvent et nous fait signifier qu'elle 
ne peut pas nous laisser long-temps ce peu de matiere qu'elle 
nous prete. . . . Les enfans qui naissent, a mesure qu'ils crois- 
sent et qu'ils s'avancent, semblent nous pousser de l'epaule ; et 
nous dire : Retirez-vous, c'est maintenant notre tour. Ainsi, 
comme nous en voyons passer d'autres devant nous, d'autres 
nous verront passer, qui doivent a leurs successeurs le memo 
spectacle. O Dieu! encore une fois, qu'est-ce que de nous? 1 
Si je jette la vue devant moi, quel espace infini ou je ne suis 

1 qiiest-ce que dc nous ? what are we ? 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 329 

pas! si je la retourne en arriere, quelle suite effroyable ou je 
ne suis plus! et que j'occupe peu de place dans cet abime im- 
mense du temps! Je ne suis rien ; un si petit intervalle n'est 
pas capable de me distinguer du neant. On ne m'a envoye 
que pour faire nombre ; encore n'avait-on que faire de moi, et 
la piece n'en aurait pas ete moins jouee, quand je serais de- 
meure derriere le theatre. ... II n'y a qu'un moment qui nous 
separe du neant. Maintenant nous en tenons un ; maintenant 
il perit, et avec lui nous peririons tous, si, promptement et sans 
perdre de temps, nous n'en saisissions un autre semblable, 
jusqu'a ce qu'enfin il en viendra un auquel nous ne pourrons 
arriver, quelque effort que nous fassions pour nous y eten- 
dre ; et alors nous tomberons tout-a-coup manque de son- 
tien. O fragile appui de notre etre ! 6 fondement ruineux de 
notre substance ! (Bossuet.) 



R a p i d i t e d e la v i e . 

Helas! que sont les homraes sur la terre ? . . . Une fatale 
revolution, une rapid ite que rien n'arrete, entraine tout dans les 
abimes de Feternite. Les siecles, les generations, les empires, 
tout va se perdre dans ce go u fire : tout y entre et rien n'en 
sort. Nos ancetres nous en out fraye le chemin, et nous allons 
le frayer dans un moment a ceux qui viennent apres nous. 
Ainsi les ages se renouvellent : ainsi la figure du monde change 
sans cesse : ainsi les morts et les vivans se succedent et se 
remplacent continuellement. Rien ne demeure, tout s'use, 
tout s'eteint. Dieu seul est toujours le meme, et ses annees ne 
finissent point. Le torrent des ages et des siecles coule devant 
ses yeux : et il voit de faibles mortels, dans le temps meme 
qu'ils sont entraines par le cours fatal, l'insulter en passant, 
proflter de ce seul moment pour deshonorer son nom, et tom- 
ber au sortir de la entre les mains eternelles de sa justice. 

(Massillon.) 



Immortalite de l'ame. 

Si tout doit rlnir avec nous, si l'homme ne doit rien attcndre 
apres cette vie, et que ce soit ici notre patrie, notre origine, et 
la seule felicite que nous pouvons nous promettre, pourquoi 
n'y sommes-nous pas heureux ? Si nous ne naissons que pour 

28* 



330 SELECTIONS FROM 

les plaisirs des sens, pourquoi ne peuvent-ils nous satisfaire, 
et laissent-ils toujours un fond d'ennui et de tristesse dans notre 
coeur ? Si 1'homme n'est rien au-dessus de la bete, que ne 
coule-t-il ses jours com me elle, sans soucis, sans inquietude,, 
sans degouts, sans tristesse, dans la felicite des sens et de la 
chair ? Si 1'homme n'a point d'autre bonheur a esperer qu'un 
bonheur temporel, pourquoi ne le trouve-t-il nulle part sur la 
terre ? D'ou vient que les richesses Pinquietent, que les hon- 
neurs le fatiguent, que les plaisirs le lassent, que les sciences 
le confondent et irritent sa curiosite, loin de la satisfaire ; que 
la reputation le gene et Pembarrasse ; que tout cela ensemble 
ne peut remplir Pimmensite de son coeur et lui laisse encore 
quelque chose a desirer? Tous les autres etres, contens de 
leur destination, paraissent heureux a leur maniere, dans la 
situation ou PAuteur de la nature les a places. Les astres, tran- 
quilles dans le firmament, ne quittent pas leur sejour pour aller 
eclairer une autre terre ; la terre, reglee dans ses mouvemens, 
ne s'elance pas en haut pour aller reprendre leur place : les 
snimaux rampent dans les campagnes sans envier la destinee 
de Phomme qui habite les villes et les palais somptueux ; les 
oiseaux se rejouissent dans les airs, sans penser s'il y a des 
creatures plus heureuses qu'eux sur la terre. Tout est heu- 
reux ; pour ainsi dire, tout est a sa place dans la nature : 
Phomme seul est inquiet et mecontent ; Phomme seul est en 
proie a ses desirs, se laisse dechirer par des craiutes, trouve 
son supplice dans ses esperances, devient triste et malheureux 
au milieu de ses plaisirs ; Phomme seul ne rencontre rien ici- 
bas ou son coeur puisse se fixer. 

D'ou vient cela? O hommes 1 ne serait-ce point parceque 
vous etes ici-bas deplaces, que vous etes faits pour le ciel ; 
que votre coeur est plus grand que le monde, que la terre n'est 
pas votre patrie, et que tout ce qui n'est pas Dieu n'est rien 
pour vous ? (Id.) 



L' E va ngile . 

La majeste des 'Ecritures m'etonne; la saintete de P'Evan- 
gile parle a mon coeur. Voyez les livres des philosophes avec 
toute leur pompe, qu'ils sont petits pres de celui-la ! Se peut-il 1 
qu'un livre a la fois si sublime et si simple soit Pouvrage des 

1 Se pcut il ? can it be ? 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 331 

hommes ? Se peut-il que celui dont il fait Phistoire ne soit 
qu'un homme lui-meme ? Est-ce la le ton d'un enthousiaste 
ou d'un ambitieux sectaire ? Quelle douceur ! quelle purete 
daiv ses mceurs ! quelle grace touchante dans ses instructions ! 
quelle elevation dans ses maximes ! quelle profonde sagesse 
dans ses discours ! quelle presence d'esprit, quelle finesse et 
quelle justesse dans ses reponses ! quel empire sur ses passions ! 
Ou est Phomme, ou est le sage, qui sait agir, soufTrir, et mourir 
sans faibiesse et sans ostentation ? Quand Platon peint son juste 
imaginaire couvert de tout Popprobre du crime, et digne detous 
les prix de la vertu, il peint trait pour trait Jesus-Christ; la 
ressemblance est si frappante, que tons les peres Pont sentie, et 
qu'il n'est pas possible de s'y tromper. Quels prejuges, quel 
aveuglement ne faut-il point avoir pour oser comparer le fils 
de Sophronisque au fils de Marie ! Quelle distance de Pun a 
Pautre ! Socrate, mourant sans douleur, sans ignominie, soutint 
aisement jusqu'au bout son personnage, et si cette facile mort 
n'eut honore sa vie, on douterait si Socrate, avec tout son 
esprit, fut autre chose qu'un sophiste. II inventa, dit-on, la 
morale: d'autres avant lui Pavaient mise en pratique ; il ne fit 
que dire ce qu'ils avaient fait, il ne fit que mettre en lecons 
leurs exemples. Aristide avait ete juste avant que Socrate eut 
dit ce que c'etait que justice; 1 Leonidas etait mort pour son 
pays avant que Socrate eut fait un devoir d'aimer la patrie; 
Sparte etait sobre avant que Socrate eut lone la sobriete ; avant 
qu'il eut loue la vertu, la Grece abondait en hommes vertueux. 
Mais ou Jesus avait-il pris chez les siens Q cette morale elevee 
et pure dont lui seul a donne les lecons et Pexemple ? Du sein 
du plus furieux fanatisme la plus haute sagesse se fit entendre, 
et la simplicite des plus heroiques vertus honora le plus vil de 
tous les peuples. La mort de Socrate, philosophant tranquil- 
lement avec ses amis, est la plus douce qu'on puisse desirer ; 
celle de Jesus, expirant dans les tourmens, injurie, raille, mau- 
dit de tout un peuple, est la plus horrible qu'on puisse craindre. 
Socrate, prenant la coupe empoisonnee, benit celui qui la lui 
presente et qui pleure ; Jesus, au milieu d'un afFreux supplice, 
prie pour ses bourreaux acharnes. Oui, si la vie et la mort de 
Socrate sont d'un sage, la vie et la mort de Jesus sont d'un 
Dieu. (J.-J. Rousseau.) 

1 ce que c'Uait que justice, what justice was. — 2 les siens, his coun- 
trymen. 



SELECTIONS 



FRENCH LITERATURE 



PART II. POETRY. 



?a £ete et (a Duette bit Serpent 

Le Serpent a deux parties, 
Du genre humain ennemies, 
Tete et queue ; et toutes deux 
Ont acquis un nom fameux 
Aupres des Parques cruelles, 
Si bien qu'autrefois, entr'elles, 
II survint 1 des grands debats 

Pour le pas. 
La tete avait toujours marche devant la queue. 
La queue au Ciel se plaignit, 

Et lui dit : 
" Je fais mainte et mainte lieue, 
Com me il plait a celle-ci ; 
Croit-elle que toujours j'en veuille user ainsi ? 
Je suis son humble servante. 
On m'a faite, Dieu merci, 2 
Sa sceur, et non sa suivante. 
Toutes deux de meme sang, 
Traitez-nous de merne sorte. 
Aussi bien qu'elle je porte 
Un poison prompt et puissant. 
Enfin, voila ma requete : 
C'est a vous de commander 
Qu'on me laisse preceder, 
A mon tour, ma sceur la tete. 

// survint, there arose. — 2 Dieu merci, thanks to God. 



334 SELECTIONS FROM 

Je la conduirai si bien 

Qu'on ne se plaindra de rien." 
Le Ciel eut pour ses vceux une bonte cruelle. 
Souvent sa complaisance a de mechans efFets. 
II devrait etre sourd aux aveugles souhaits. 
II ne le fut pas lors ; et la guide nouvelle, 

Qui ne voyait au grand jour 

Pas plus clair que dans un four, 

Donnait tantot contre un marbre, 

Contre un passant, contre un arbre : 
Droit aux ombres du Styx elle mena sa sceur. 

Malbeureux les 'Etats tombes dans son erreur. 

(La Fontaine/ 



?e @f)am>e^ourt3 et ie# beur SSefette^ 

Une Chauve-souris donna, tete baissee, 1 
Dans un nid de Belette, et shot qu'elle y fut, 
L'autre, envers les Souris de longtemps courroucee, 

Pour la devorer accourur. 
"Quoi, vous osez," dit-elle, "a mes yeux vous produire. 
Apres que votre race a tache de me nuire? 
N'etes-vous pas Souris ? Parlez sans fiction. 
Oui, vous l'etes, ou bien je ne suis pas Belette." 

" Pardonnez-moi," dit la pauvrette, 

<c Ce n'est pas ma profession. 
Moi Souris ! Des mecnans vous ont dit ces nouvelles : 

Grace a l'Auteur de Punivers, 

Je suis Oiseau : voyez mes ailes: 

Vive la gent qui fend les airs." 

Sa raison plut et sembla bonne. 

Elle fait si bien qu'on lui donne 

Li bene de se retirer. 

Deux jours apres, notre etourdie 

Aveugliment se va fourrer 
dies une autre Belette aux Oiseaux ennemie. 
La voila derechef en danger de sa vie. 
La Dame du logis, avec son long museau, 
S'en 2 allait la croquer en qualite d'Oiseau ; 

1 tete baissde, headlong. — 2 s'cn allait, was going. See App. M. 
Mlcr. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 335 

Quand elle protesta qu'on lui faisait outrage. 

u Moi pour telle passer ! Vous n'y regardez pas. 

Qui fait l'Oiseau ? C'est le plumage. 

Je suis Souris : vivent les Rats : 

Jupiter confonde les Chats !" 

Par cette adroite repartie 

Elle sauva deux fois sa vie. 

(Id.) 



2'3ttrogtte et 3ct gentme* 

Chacun a son defaut, ou tou jours il revient : 
Honte ni peur n'y remedie. 

Sur ce propos d'un conte il me souvient. 1 
Je ne dis rien que je n'appuie 

De quelque exemple. Un suppot de Bacchus 
Alterait sa sante, son esprit, et sa bourse. 
Telles gens n'ont pas fait la moitie de leur course, 

Qu'ils sont au bout de leurs ecus. 
Un jour que celui-ci, plein du jus de la treille, 
Avait laisse ses sens au fond d'une bouteille, 
Sa femme l'enferma dans un certain tombeau. 

La, les vapeurs du vin nouveau 
Cuverent a loisir. A son reveil il treuve 2 
L'attirail de la mort alentour de son corps, 

Un luminaire, un drap des morts. 
u Oh !" dit-il, "qu'est ceci ? Ma femme est-elie veuve ?- 
La-dessus, son epouse, en habit d'Alecton, 
Masquee, et de sa voix contrefaisant le ton, 
Vient au pretendu mort, approche de sa biere, 
Lui presente un chaudeau propre pour Lucifer. 
L'epoux alors ne doute en aucune maniere 

Qu'il ne soit citoyen d'Enfer. 
" Quelle personne es-tu ?" dit-il a ce fantome. 

M La c^Ieriere du royaume 
De Satan," reprit-elle ; " et je porte a manger 

A ceux qu'encl6t la tombe noire." 

Le mari repart sans songer : 

M Tu ne leur portes point a boire?" 
(Id.) 

1 il me souvient, I remember. — 2 treuve, poet, for trouve. 



336 SELECTIONS FROM 



?e £tgre et (e SKettarb* 

"Te voila de retour, ami Renard. Dis-moi : 
As tu bien accompli les ordres de ton roi ? 
As tu bien ecoute ce que dans mon empire 

Chacun de mes sujets peut dire? 

Puis-je etre assure de leur foi ? 
Quels sont les sentimens que ma personne inspire ? 
Parle : est-ce de Pamour ? serait-ce de Peffroi ?" — 

" Inspirer de 1'efTroi ? de l'effroi, vous ! non, sire : 

On vous cherit, on vous admire, 
Vos bienfaits, vos vertus ont gagne tous les cceurs; 
On vous nomrne des rois le plus grand, le plus juste. 
Voyez, dit-on, voyez, comme ce tigre auguste 
Sur nous aime a verser chaque jour ses faveurs ! 

Dans son coeur la justice eclaire 

La bienfaisance et la bonte : 

A son tour la bonte modere 

L'exacte et rigide equite. 
Et puis avec transport : Comblez nos vceux, 6 Parque! 
Et prolongez son terme aux depens de nos jours. 
Je ne finirais pas, s'il fallait, grand monarque, 
Vous rapporter ici tous les tendres discours, 
Discours non pas d'un seul, mais de la multitude, 
Discours des animaux par troupe rassembles.". . . 

" Et ceux de qui les fils par ma griffe etrangles ?" . . . 

" Ceux-la, je l'oubliais, chantent leur gratitude, 
Et connaissent le prix de cette insigne honneur. 

Pour nous, disent-ils, quelle bonheur 

D'avoir fourni de la pature.". . . 

"Ton rapport, cher ami, ne sent point l'imposture: 

II me contente : j'aime a voir 

Que mes sujets font leur devoir. 

J'approuve que la voix publique 
En toute liberte sur mon compte s'explique. 
Mais tous ces animaux qui causent deux a deux, 

Leur discours est-il aussi tendre?" 

" Sans doute, roi puissant, ils font pour vous des vceux : 

Mais ils sont si respectueux, 
Ils se parlent si bas, qu'on ne peut les entendre." 

(Le Moiwier.) 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 337 



Un grand fleuve parcourt le monde: 
Tantot lent, il serpente entre des pres fleuris, 

Les embellit et les feconde ; 
Tantot rapide, il s^enfle, il se courrouce, il gronde, 
Roulant, precipitant au milieu des debris 

Son eau turbulente et profonde. 
A travers les cites, les guerets, les deserts, 
II va, distribuant, a mesure inegale, 
Aux avides humains dont ses bords sont couverts, 
Les tresors de son urne avare et liberate. 
Ainsi, tandis que Pun, dans son repos, 

Benit la main de la nature, 
Qui dans son heritage a fait passer leurs flots, 

Ou les lui donne pour ceinture, 
L'autre maudit le sol dont les flancs dechires 
Reproduisent sans cesse et le roc et la pierre, 
Indestructible digue, eternelle barriere, 
Assise entre le fleuve et ses champs alteres. 

Mais le plaisant de cette histoire, 

C'est de voir certain compagnon 

Plonge dans l'eau jusqu'au menton ; 

Plus il a bu, plus il veut boire. 

Infatigable, et dans son bain 

Cent fois moins heureux et moins sage 
Qu'un homme qui tout pres, sans desirs, sans dedain. 
Regardant l'eau couler, n'en prend pour son usage 
Que ce qu'il peut tenir dans le creux de sa main. 

Homme rare, sur ma parole ! 

Avec moi vous en conviendrez, 

Mes bons amis, quand vous saurez 

Que notre fleuve est le Pactole. 

(Arnault.) 



Le compere Thomas et son ami Lubin 
Allaient a pied tous deux a la ville prochaine. 

Thomas trouve sur son chemin 

Une bourse de Louis pleine : 
29 



338 SELECTIONS FROM 

II l'empocfae aussitot. Lubin, d'un air content, 

Lui dit: " Pour nous la bonne aubaine !" 

" Non," repond Thomas froidement ; 
"Pour nous n'est pas bien dit: Pour moi c'est different." 
Lubin ne souffle plus : mais, en quittant la plaine, 
lis trouvent des voleurs caches au bois voisin, 

Thomas, tremblant, et non sans cause, 
Dit : " Nous sommes perdus." — " Non," lui repond Lubin 
Nous n'est pas le vrai mot, mais toi c'est autre chose. 
Cela dit, il s'echappe a travers les taillis. 
Immobile de peur, Thomas est bientot pris; 

II tire la bourse et la donne. 
Qui ne songe qu'a soi quand sa fortune est bonne, 

Dans le malheur n'a point d'amis. 

(Anon.) 



9Dtomere be 2tre Ie£ 3Ser£- 

Arre'te, sot lecteur, dont la triste manie 
Detruit de nos accords la savante harmonie ; 
Arrete, par pitie ! Quel funeste travers, 
En depit d'Apollon, te fait lire des vers ? 
Ah ! si ta voix ingrate ou languit ou detonne, 
Ou traine avec lenteur son fausset monotone ; 
Si du feu du genie en nos vers allume 
N'etincelle jamais ton ceil inanime ; 
Si ta lecture enfin, dolente psalmodie, 
Ne dit rien, ne peut rien, a mon ame engourdie, 
Cesse, ou laisse-moi fuir. Ton regard abattu 
Du regard de Meduse a la triste vertu. 
L'auditeur, qu'ont glace tes sons et ta presence, 
Croit subir le supplice invente par Mezence : 
C'est un vivant qu'on lie au cadavre d'un mort. 
Attentif a ta voix, Phebus meme s'endort ; 
Sa defaillante main laisse tomber sa lyre. 

C'est pen d 'aimer les vers : il les faut savoir lire. 
II faut avoir appris cet art melodieux 
De parler dignement le langage des dieux ; 
Cet art qui, par les tons des phrases cadencees, 
Donne de l'harmonie et du nombre aux pensees ; 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 339 

Cet art de declamer dont le charme vainqueur 
Assujettit Toreille et subjugue le coeur. 

(Francais de Neufchateau.) 



S'Gntgetgnemetrt SftutueL 

Oh ! si le sort aveugle, a tons mes vaeux propice, 

M'eut pertnis d'etre heureux au gre de mon caprice, 

Horace, ton ruisseau, ton champ, ton petit bois, 

Ne m'auraient point sum* pour etre egal aux rois. 

J'aurais encore voulu, pres de mon toit agreste, 

Ouvrir au fils du pauvre une ecole modeste ; 

Et parmi ses enfans, tous sou in is a ma loi, 

J'aurais reve des jours qui ne sont plus pour moi. 

Enfans, rassurez-vous : mon front n'est point severe : 

Je veux surtout qu'on m'aime, et peu qu'on me revere. 

Je n'aurais pas ete ce magister jaloux, 

Pedant, gonfle de morgue, et bourn* de courroux, 

Qui semble, en ses sermons toujours tristes et graves, 

Le vieux de la montagne instruisant ses esclaves. 

La peur preside seul a ses vaines lecons ; 

U gronde sur un mot, punit sur des soupcons, 

Et souvent, a mentir vous contraignant d'avance, 

Detruit votre candeur et non votre ignorance. 

Loin de rnoi ce vieux fou, despote triomphant, 

Qui ne se souvient plus qu'il fut jadis enfant, 

Et, foulant sous son joug la jeunesse asservie, 

Fletrit d'un souffle impur les roses de la vie! 

Enfans, vous en riez : mais vos pleurs chaque soir 

Par leur trace recente atteste son pouvoir. 

Pour moi, j'aurais voulu, troupe aimable et joyeuse, 

Vous faire un doux plaisir d'une etude eunuyeuse! 

J'aurais, d'un nouvel art empruntant le secours, 

Su 1 rendre vos travaux moins tristes et plus courts : 

Je vous aurais laisse le soin de vous instruire, 

Et ma classe eut offert l'image d'un empire. 

Roi, j'aurais dispense les rangs et les emplois. 

J'aurais dit a chacun : Cherche a fixer mon choix ; 

Parmi tes compagnons hate-toi de paraitre ; 

Sois d'abord leur vainqueur, du deviendras leur maitrc. 

1 5w, from savoir. And see App. P. IV. 



340 SELECTIONS FROM 

Alors j*aurais pu voir tous ces jeunes rivaux 
Disputer sous mes yeux de zele et de travaux. 
Fier d'un titre conquis, tan tot le plus habile 
Guide des moins savans la phalange docile ; 
Et tantot l'ignorant, par un juste retour, 
Grace a lui, prend sa place, et Pinstruit a son tour. 

(Anon.) 



Salut, reme des fleurs ! salut, vermeille rose I 

A' peine le matin a vu la fleur eclose, 

Que les jeunes zephyrs, dim doux zele emportes^ 

Racontent ta naissance aux bosquets enchantes ; 

Et le printemps ravi, que ton eclat deeore, 

Te remet la couronne et le sceptre de Flore. 

Oh ! tu merites bien la douce royaute 

Que la main du printemps decerne a ta beaute 1 

N'es-tu pas de Pamour le riant interpreter 

L'ornement de la vierge, et I'amour du poete ? 

O fleur ! tu fais briller d'un eclat enflamme 

Le sein vermeil et frais du printemps parfume. 

Mais, helas ! combien peu vont durer ses couleurs t 

L'aube en vain lui versa le tribut de ses pleurs : 

Deux soleils, en passant, ont hate sa vieillesse. 

Ce matin, riche encore de grace et de jeunesse, 

Elle etait du jardin l'esperance et Pamour ; 

Mais la rose a vieilli dans Pespace d'un jour. 

De cette tete, en vain par les graces or nee, 

Le soir 1 j'ai vu tomber la couronne fanee ; 

Et les zephyrs ingrats, sur les gazons fleuris, 

De la rose a mes pieds ont roule les debris. 

(Chenedolle.) 



?a aStofette. 

Aimable fille du printemps, 
Timide amante des bocages, 
Ton doux parfum flatte mes sens, 
Et tu sembles fuir nos hommages. 



1 Lc soir, at evening. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 341 

Semblable au bienfaiteur discret 
Dont la main secourt Pindigence, 
Tu nous presentes le bienfait 
Et tu crains la reconnaissance. 

Sans faste, sans admirateur, 
Tu vis 1 a Poubli condamnee, 
Et l'oeil cherche encore ta fleur, 
Quand l'odorat l'a devinee. 

Pourquoi tes modestes couleurs 
Au jour n'osent-elles paraitre ? 
Aupres de la reine des fleurs 
Tu crains de t'eclipser peut-etre? 

Rassure-toi ; pres de Venus 

Les Graces nous plaisent encore: 

On airne I'eclat de Phebus 

Et les doux rayons de PAurore. 

N'attends pas les succes brillans 
Qu'obtient la rose pur purine ; 
Tu n'es pas la fleur des amans, 
Mais aussi tu n'as pas d'epine. 

Partage au moins avec ta sceur 
Son triomphe et notre suffrage : 
L'Amour 1'adopte pour sa fleur; 
De 1'Amitie sois l'apanage : 

Viens prendre place en nos jardins ; 
Quitte ce sejour solitaire : 
Je te promets tous les matins 
Une onde pure et salutaire. — 

Que dis-je ! non, dans ces bosquets 
Reste, violette cherie : 
Heureux qui repand des bienfaits, 
Et comme toi cache sa vie ! 

(Constant Dujbos.) 

1 vis, from vivre. 

*29 



342 SELECTIONS FROIff 



Le foyer des plaisirs est la source feconde ; 
II fixe doucement notre humeur vagabonde. 
Au retour du printemps, de nos toits echappes. 
Nous portons en tous lieux nos esprits dissipes. 
Le printemps nous disperse, et l'hiver nous rallie* 
Aupres de nos foyers, notre arne recueillie 
Goute ce doux commerce a tous les cceurs si cherE 
Oui, Pinstinct social est enfant de l'hiver. 

Suis-je seul, je me plais encore au coin du feu. 
De nourrir mon brasier mes mains se font un jeu ; 
J'agace mes tisons ; mon adroit artifice 
Reconstruit de mon feu Felegant edifice: 
J'eloigne,je rapproche, et du hetre brulant 
Je corrige le feu trop rapide ou trop lent. 
Chaque fois que j'ai pris mes pincettes fideles 
Partent en petiHant des milliers d'etincelles ; 
J'aime a voir s'envoler leurs legers bataillons. 
Q,ue m'irnporte du Nord les fougueux tourbillons ? 
La neige, les frimas r qu'un froid piquant resserre, 
En vain sifflent dans Pair, en vain battent la terre, 
Quel plaisir, entoure d'un double paravent, 
D'ecouter la tern pete, et d'insulter au vent ! 
Qu'il est doux, a I'abri 1 du toit qui me protege, 
De voir a gros flocons s'amonceler la neige ! 
Leur vue a mon foyer prete un nouvel appas : 
L'homme se plait a voir les maux qu'il ne sent pas. 
Mon cceur devient-il triste, et ma tete pesante ? 
He bien, pour ranimer ma gaite languissante, 
La feve de Mocha, la feuille de Canton, 
Vont verser leur nectar dans Pemail du Japon. 
Dans Pairain echaufTe dt'ja Ponde frissonne ; 
Bientot le the dore jaunit I'eau qui bouillonne. 
Ou des grains du Levant je goute le parfum. 
Point d'ennuyeux causeur, de temoin importun : 
Lui seul, de ma maison exacte sentinelle, 
Mon chier), ami constant et compagnon fidele, 
Prend a tries pieds sa part de la douce chaleur. 

(Delille. 

1 a Cabri, under the shelter. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 343 



dxvStence be Qieu. 

Les cieux instruisent la terre 
A reverer leur Auteur : 
Tout ce que leur globe enserre 
Celebre un Dieu createur. 
O quel sublime cantique 
1 Que ce concert magnifique 
De tous les celestes corps ! 
Quelle grandeur infinie ! 
Quelle divine harmonie 
Resulte de leurs accords! 

De sa puissance immortelle 

Tout parle, tout nous instruit. 

Le jour au jour la revele, 

La nuit l'annonce a la nuit. 

Ce grand et superbe ouvrage 

N'est point pour l'homme un langage 

Obscur et mysterieux. 

Son adorable structure 

Est la voix de la nature 

Qui se fait entendre aux yeux. 

Dans une eclatante voute 
II a place de ses mains 
Ce soleil qui, dans sa route, 
'Eclaire tous les humains. 
Environne de lumiere, 
Cet astre ouvre sa carriere 
Comme un epoux glorieux, 
Qui, des l'aube matinale, 
De sa couche nuptiale 
Sort brillant etradieux. 

L'univers, a sa presence, 
Semble sortir du neant : 
11 prend sa course, il s'avance 
Comme un superbe geant. 
Bientot sa marche feconde 
Embrasse le tour du monde 

1 § 708. 



344 SELECTIONS FROM 

Dans le cercle qu'il decrit ; 
Et, par sa chaleur puissante, 
La nature languissante 
Se ranime et se nourrit. 

O que tes oeuvres sont belles, 

Grand Dieu ! quels sont tes bienfaits! 

Que ceux qui te sont fideles 

Sous ton joug trouvent d'attraits ! 

Ta crainte inspire la joie, 

Elle assure notre voie, 

Elle nous rend triomphans, 

Elle eclaire la jeunesse, 

Et fait briller la sagesse 

Dans les plus faibles enfans. 

(J. B. Rousseau. 



Des superbes rnortels le plus afFreux lien, 

N'en doutons point, Arnauld, c'est la honte du bien. 

Des plus nobles vertus cette adroite ennemie 

Peint 1'honneur a nos yeux des traits de Finfamie, 

Asservit nos esprits sous un joug rigoureux, 

Et nous rend Pun de Fautre les esclaves malheureux. 

Par elle la vertu devient lache et timide. 

Vois-tu ce libertin en public intrepide, 

Qui preche contre un Dieu que dans son ame il croit ? 

II irait embrasser la verite qu'il voit ; 

Mais de ses faux amis il craint la raillerie, 

Et ne brave ainsi Dieu que par poltrounerie. 

C'est la de tous nos maux le fatal fondement, 
Des jugemens d'autrui nous tremblons follement ; 
Et chacun Pun de Pautre adorant les caprices, 
Nous cherchons bors de nous nos vertus et nos vices. 
Miserables jouets de notre vanite, 
Faisons an inoins Paveu de notre infirmite. 
'A quoi bon, quand la fievre en nos arteres brule, 
Faire de notre mal un secret ridicule ? 
Le feu sort de vos yeux petillans et troubles, 
Votre pouls iru'gal inarche a pas redoubles; 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 345 

Quelle fausse pudeur a feindre vous oblige ? — 
Qu'avez-vous ? — Je n'ai rien. — Mais. . . — Je n'ai rien, vous 

dis-je 3 — - 
Repondra ce malade a se taire obstine. 
Mais cependant voila tout son corps gangrene, 
Et la fievre, demain se rendant la plus forte, 
Un benitier aux pieds va Petendre a la porte. 
Prevenons sagement un si juste tnalheur. 
Le jour fatal est proche et vient comme un voleur. 
Avant qu'a nos erreurs le ciel nous abandonne, 
Profitons de l'instant que de grace il nous donne. 
Hatons-nous ; le temps fuit, et nous traine avec soi : 
Le moment ou je parle est deja loin de moi. 

Mais quoi ! toujours la honte en esclaves 1 nous lie! 
Oui, c'est toi qui nous perd, ridicule folie: 
C'est toi qui fis tomber le premier malheureux, 
Le jour que, d'un faux bien sottement amoureux, 
Et u'osant soupconner sa femme d'imposture, 
Au demon, par pudeur, il vendit la nature. 
Helas ! avant ce jour qui perdit ses neveux, 
Tous les plaisirs couraient au-devant de ses vceux. 
La faim aux animaux ne faisaient point la guerre : 
Le ble, pour se donner sans peine ouvrant la terre, 
N'attendait point qu'un boeuf, presse de Paiguillon, 
Tracat a pas tardifs un penible sillon : 
La vigne offrait partout des grappes toujours pleines, 
Et des ruisseaux de lait serpentaient dans les plaines. 
Mais des ce jour Adam, dechu de son etat, 
D'un tribut de douleurs paya son attentat. 
II fallut qu'au travail son corps rendu docile 
Forcat la terre avare a devenir fertile. 
Le chardon importun herissa les guerets; 
Le serpent venimeux rampa dans les forets ; 
La canicule en feux desola les campagnes ; 
L'aquilon en fureur gronda sur les montagnes. 
Alors, pour se couvrir durant 1'apre saison, 
II fallut aux brebis derober leur toison. 
La peste en meme temps, la guerre, et la famine, 
Des malheureux humains jurerent la ruine. 

Mais aucun de ces maux n'egala 2 les rigueurs 
Que la mauvaise honte exerca dans les cceurs. 

1 en esclaves j as slaves. — 2 App. O. II. § XI. 



346 SELECTIONS FROM 

De ce nid a 1'instant sortirent tous les vices. 
L'avare, des premiers en proie 1 a ses caprices, 
Dans un infame gain mettant l'honnetete, 
Pour tout honte alors compta la pauvrete: 
L'honneur et la vertu n'oserent plus paroitre ; 
La piete chercha les deserts et le cloitre. 
Depuis on n'a point vu de coeur si detache, 
Qui par quelque lien ne tint a ce peche. 
Triste et funeste effet du premier de nos crimes! 
Moi-meme, Arnauld, ici, qui te preche en ces rimes, 
Plus qu'aucun des mortels par la honte abattu, 
En vain j'arme contre elle une faible vertu. 
Ainsi, toujours douteux, chancelant, et volage, 
A peine du limon ou le vice m'engage 
J'arrache un pied timide et sors en m'agitant, 
Que l'autre m'y reporte et s'embourbe a 1'instant. 
Car si, comme aujourd'hui, quelque rayon de zele 
Allume dans mon cceur une clarte nouvelle, 
Soudain, aux yeux d'autrui s'il faut la confirmer, 
D'un geste, d'un regard, je me sens alarmer ; 
Et, meme sur ces vers que je te viens d'ecrire, 2 
Je tremble en ce moment de ce que l'on va dire. 3 

(Boileau. 



?a SKort 

Quand, de la vie essayant le voyage, 
L'enfant sourit a son naissant destin, 
La Mort est la: comme un leger nuage, 
Elle apparait a l'horizon lointain, 
Sans redouter cette ombre fugitive, 
Qu'apercoit seule une mere craintive, 
II rit, berce d'ignorance et d'espoir : 
Son beau matin ne prevoit point de soir. 
La Mort est la, quand des jours de l'enfance 
Aux mains du temps le sable est ecoule : 
Avec eflroi la vive adolescence 
Distingue alors son fantome voilf : 
Au sein des jeux, aux heures de l'etude, 
Une soudaine et vague inquietude 



1 en proie, becoming a prey. — 2 viens d'dcrirc, have just written. — 
3 va dire, are going to say. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 347 

Vers cet objet ramene son regard ; 

Le voile obscur se souleve plus tard. 

II est une heure ou l'aveugle jeunesse 

D'un vain espoir laisse echapper l'ivresse, 

Heure funeste, ou les premiers malheurs 

Font a nos yeux verser les premiers pleurs, 

Ou tout entier le monde se revele ! 

La Mort est la ; mais la Mort parait belle ! 

C'est un jeune ange au maintien triste et doux ; 

D'un leger deuil le voile l'environne, 

De pales fleurs son beau front se couronne. 

C'est un ami qui s'approche de nous ; 

D'aucun effroi sa march e n'est suivie ; 

Ses chastes mains du flambeau de la vie 

Couvrent le sol, pressent l'eclat mortel. 

Mais d'un regard il endort la soufFrance, 

Mais tous ses traits rayonnent d'esperance, 

Mais il sourit et nous montre le ciel ! 

Du jour bientot le midi nous eclaire, 

Et, degage des vapeurs du matin, 

L'ange grandit ; son front devient severe, 

Et, depouillant ce nuage incertain, 

Plus il avance et plus on le redoute : 

Tous les tresors amasses sur la route, 

Sa vaste main s'ouvre pour les ravir, 

Et c'est alors que la Mort fait palir. 

Mais elle approche et s'agrandit sans cesse ; 

L'ame entrevoit le terme du chemin ; 

Deja s'enfuit sous l'ombre qui s'abaisse 

L'eclat mourant d'un soir sans lendemain. 

Du poids des ans s'accroit notre faiblesse: 

La Mort est la! Courbes par la vieillesse, 

Quand nous touchons a ses pieds redoutes, 

Son front immense est cache dans la nue ; 

Mais si le spectre echappe a notre vue, 

Nous le sentons debout a nos cotes! 

Quoi ! je mourrai ! quoi ! le temps a sa suite 

Amenera l'irrevocable jour, 

Le jour muet et sombre, ou sans retour 

S'arretera ce cceur qui bat si vite ! 

Oui, quand les biens que garde l'avenir 

Me chercheront, j'aurai quitte la terre, 



348 SELECTIONS FROM 

Comme au vallon une fleur solitaire 
Se fane et meurt, laissant pour souvenir 
Quelques parfums et des feuilles legeres, 
Faibles jouets des brises bocageres ! 
Vous, de la lyre amis harmonieux I 
Oh ! recueillez avec un soin pieux 
Ces chants epars ou j'ai laisse mon ame. 
lis vivront peu : mais peut-etre une femme, 
A' leur douceur seduite par degre, 
Suivra de l'oeil la page fugitive. . . . 
Puis tout-a-coup s'arretera pensive, 
En repetant tout bas: Quoi ! je mourrai ! 

(Mme. Amable-Tastu.) 



?a 9D?oberatton\ 

Tout vouloir est d'un fou, l'exces est son partage ; 

La moderation est Je tresor du sage : 

II sait regler ses gouts, ses travaux, ses plnisirs, 

Mettre un but a sa course, un terme a ses desirs. 

Nul ne peut avoir tout. L'amour de la science 

A guide ta jeunesse au sortir de Fenfance ; 

La nature est ton livre, et tu pretends y voir 

Moins ce qu'on a pense que ce qu'il faut savoir. 

La raison te conduit, avance a sa lumiere. 

Marche encore quelques pas, mais borne ta carriere : 

La commence un abime; il le faut respecter. 

Reaumur, dont la main si savante et si sure 
A perce tant de fois la nuit de la nature, 
M'apprendra-t-il jamais par quels subtils ressorta 
L'eternel Artisan fait vegeter les corps ? 
Pourquoi Taspic affreux, le tigre, la panthere, 
N'ont jamais adouci leur cruel caractere, 
Et que reconnaissant la main qui le nourrit, 
Le chien meurt en lechant le maitre qu'il client ? 
D'ou vient qu'avec cent pieds, qui semblent inutiles, 
Cet insecte tremblant traine ses pas dtbiles ? 
Pourquoi ce ver changeant se batit un tombeau, 
S'enterre, et resuscite avec un corps nouveau ; 
Et, le front couronnr, tout brillant dVtincelles, 
S'elance dans les airs en deployant ses ailes ? 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 349 

Le sage du Fai parmi ses plants divers, 

Vegetaux rassembles des bouts de l'univers, 

Me dira-t-il pourquoi la tendre sensitive 

Se fletrit sous nos mains, honteuse et fugitive ? 

Malade, et dans un lit de douleur accable, 

Par l'eloquent Sylva vous etes console: 

II sait Part de guerir autant que Part de plaire. 

Demandez a Sylva par quel secret mystere 

Ce pain, cet aliment, dans mon corps digere, 

Se transforme en un lait doucement prepare ? 

Comme toujours filtre dans ses routes certaines, 

En longs ruisseaux de pourpre il court enfler mes veines, 

1 A mon corps languissant rend un pouvoir nouveau, 

Fait palpiter mon cceur et penser mon cerveau ? 

II leve au ciel les yeux, il s'incline, il s'ecrie: 

Demandez-le a ce Dieu qui nous donna la vie ! 

(Voltaire.) 



2e3 £ironbette& 

Captif au rivage du Maure, 
Un guerrier, courbe sous ses fers, 
Disait : Je vous revois encore, 
Oiseaux, ennemis des hi vers. 
Hirondelles, que l'esperance 
Suit jusqu'en ces brulans climats, 
Sans doute vous quittez la France : 
De mon pays ne me parlez-vous pas? 

Depuis trois ans 1 je vous conjure 
De m'apporter un souvenir 
Du vallon ou ma vie obscure 
Se bercjait d'un douxavenir. 
Au detour d'une eau qui chemine, 
A flots purs, sous de frais lilas, 
Vous avez vu notre chaumine : 
De ce vallon ne me parlez-vous pas ? 



1 depuis trois ans, for three years. 

30 



350 SELECTIONS FROM 

L'une de vous peut-etre est nee 
Au toit ou j'ai recu le jour ; 
La, d'une mere infortunee 
Vous avez du 1 plaindre l'amour. 
Mourante, elle croit a toute heure 
Entendre le bruit de mes pas ; 
Elle ecoute, puis elle pleure. 
De son amour ne me parlez-vous pas ? 

Ma sceur est-elle mariee ? 
Avez-vous vu de nos garcons 
La foule aux noces conviee, 
La celebrer dans ses chansons ? 
Et ses compagnons du jeune age 
Qui m'ont suivi dans les combats, 
Ont-ils revu tous le village ? 
De tant d'amis ne me parlez-vous pas ? 

Sur leurs corps, Fetranger peut-etre 
Du vallon reprend le chemin ; 
Sous mon chaume il commande en maitre, 
De ma sceur il trouble Phymen. 
Pour moi, plus 2 de mere qui prie, 
Et partout des fers ici-bas. 
Hirondelles, de ma patrie, 
De ses malheurs, ne me parlez-vous pas ? 

(J.-P. De Be ranger/ 



tyflovt be Jeanne b'2(rc* 

A qui reserve-t-on ces apprets meurtriers? 

Pour qui ces torches qu'on excite? 

L'airain sacre tremble et s'agite. . . . 
D'ou vient ce bruit lugubre ? ou courent ces guerriers 
Dont la foule a longs flots roule et se precipite ? 

La joie eclate sur leurs traits ; 
Sans doute l'honneur les enflamme ; 
lis vont pour un assaut former leurs rangs epais : 
Non, ces guerriers sont des Anglais 
Qui vont voir mourir une femme. 

1 dii } been obliged. — 2 j?lus, no more. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 351 

Qu'ils sont nobles dans leur courroux ! 
Qu'il est beau d'insulter au bras charge d'entraves! 
La voyant sans defense, ils s'ecriaient, ces braves : 

" Qu'elle meure ! elle a contre nous 
Des esprits infernaux suscite la magie." . . . 

Laches, que lui reprochez-vous ? 
D'un courage inspire la brulante energie, 
L 'amour du uom Francais, le mepris du danger, 

Voila sa magie et ses charmes : 

En faut-il d'autre que des annes 
Pour combattre, pour vaincre et punir l'etranger ? 

Du Christ, avec ardeur, Jeanne baisait l'image ; 
Ses longs cheveux epars flottaient au gre des vents : 
Au pied de l'echafaud, sans changer de visage, 
Elle s'avancait a pas lents. 

Tranquille elle y monta. Quand, debout sur le faite, 
Elle vit le bucher qui l'allait devorer, 
Les bourreaux en suspens, la flam me deja prete, 
Sentant son cceur faillir, elle baissa la tete, 

Et se prit a pleurer. 

Ah ! pleure, fille infortunee ! 

Ta jeunesse va se fletrir, 

Dans sa fleur trop tot moissonnee ! 

Adieu, beau ciel, il faut mourir ! 

Tu ne verras plus tes riantes montagnes^ 

Le temple, le hameau, les champs de Vaucouleurs ; 

Et ta chaumiere, et tes compagnes, 
Et ton pere expirant sous le poids des douleurs. 

Apres quelques instans d'un horrible silence, 
Tout-a-eoup le feu brille, il s'irrite, il s'elance. . . . 
Le cceur de la guerriere alors s'est ranime ; 
'A travers les vapeurs d'une fumee ardente, 

Jeanne, encore menacante, 
Montre aux Anglais son bras a demi consume. 

Pourquoi reculer d'epouvante, 

Anglais ? son bras est desarme ; 
La flamme 1'environne, et sa voix expirante 
Murmure encore : O France, 6 mon roi bien-aime ! 



352 SELECTIONS FROM 

Qu'un monument s'eleve au lieu de ta naissance ! 
O toi, qui des vainqueurs renversa Jes projets 1 
La France y portera son deuil et ses regrets, 

Sa tardive reconnaissance ; 
Elle y viendra gemir sous de jeunes cypres; 
Puissent croitre avec eux ta gloire et sa puissance! 

Que sur l'airain funebre on grave des combats, 
Des etendards Anglais fuyant devant tes pas, 
Dieu vengeant par tes mains la plus juste des causes! 
Venez, jeunes beautes ; venez, braves soldats ; 
Semez sur son tombeau les lauriers et les roses ! 

Qu'un jour le voyageur, en pareourant ces bois, 
Cueille un rameau sacre, l'y depose, et s'ecrie : 
*A celle qui sauva le trone et la patrie, 
Et n'obtint qu'un tombeau pour prix de ses exploits ! 

(Casimir Delavigne.) 



Sur un ecueil battu par la vague plaintive, 
Le nautonier de loin voit blanchir sur la rive 
Un tombeau pres du bord par les flots depose : 
Le temps n'a pas encore bruni l'etroite pierre, 
Et sous le vert tissu de la ronce et du lierre, 
On distingue . ..un sceptre brise ! 



II est la ! sous trois pas un enfant le mesure ! 
Son ombre ne rend pas meme un leger murmure ! 
Le pied d'un ennemi foule en paix son cercueil ! 
Sur ce front foudroyant le moucheron bourdonne, 
Et son ombre ii'emend que le bruit monotone 
D'une vague contre un ecueil. 



Ne crains pas, cependant, ombre encore inquiete, 

Que je vienne outrager ta mnjeste muette ! 

Non ! La lyre aux tombeaux n'a jamais insult^ : 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 353 

La mort Cut de tout temps l'asyle de la gloire ; 
Rien ne doit jusqu'ici poursuivre line memoire, 
Rien ! . . . exeepte la verite. 

Ta tombe et ton berceau sont couverts d'un nuage ; 
Mais, pareil a l'eclair, tu sortis d'un orage ! 
Tu foudroyas le monde avant d'avoir un nom ! 
Tel ce Nil, dont Memphis boit les vagues fecondes, 
Avant d'etre nom me, fait bouillonner ses ondes 
Aux solitudes de Memnon. 

Les dieux etaient tombes, les trones etaient vides; 
La victoire te prit sur ses ailes rapides. 
D'un peuple de Brutus la gloire te fit roi ! 
Ce siecle, dont l'ecume entraiuait dans sa course 
Les mceurs, les rois, les dieux . . . refoule vers sa source, 
Recula d'un pas devant toi. 



Ainsi dans les acces d'un impuissant delire, 
Quand un siecle vieilli de ses mains se dechire, 
En jetant dans les fers un cri de liberte, 
Un heros tout-a-coup de la poudre se leve, 
Le frappe avec son sceptre . . . il s'eveille, et le reve 
Tombe devant la verite. 

Gloire ! honneur ! liberte ! ces mots que l'hornme adore. 
Retentissaient pour toi com me l'airain sonore, 
Dont un stupide echo re pete au loin le son ! 
De cette langue en vain ton oreille frappee 
Ne comprit ici-bas que le cri de l'epee, 
Et le male accord du clairon. 



Jamais, pour eclaircir ta royale tristesse, 
La coupe des festins ne te versa l'ivresse ; 
Tes yeux d'une autre pompe aimaient a s'enivrer. 
Comme un soldat debout qui veille sous les armes, 
Tu vis de la beaute le sourire et les larmes, 
Sans sourire et sans soupirer ! 

Tu n'aimais que le bruit du fer, le cri d'alarmes ! 
L'eclat resplendissant de l'aube sur les armes ; 
30* 



354 SELECTIONS FROM 

Et ta main ne flattait que ton leger coursier, 
Quand les flots ondoyants de sa pale criniere 
Sillonnaient comme un vent la sanglante poussiere, 
Et que ses pieds brisaient I'acier ! 

Tu grandis sans plaisir, tu tombas sans murmure ! 
Rien d'humain ne battait sous ton epaisse armure, 
Sans haine et sans amour tu vivais pour penser ! 
Comme Paigle regnant dans un ciel solitaire, 
Tu n'avais qu'un regard pour mesurer la terre, 
Et dejf serres pour l'embrasser ! 



Etre d'un siecle entier la pensee et la vie ! 
'Emousser le poignard, decourager l'envie ; 
'Ebranler, raffermir Punivers incerta-in ; 
Aux sinistres clartes de la foudre qui gronde, 
Vingt fois contre les dieux jouer le sort du monde,— 
Quel reve ! . . . et ce fut ton destin 1 



On dit qu'aux derniers jours de sa longue agonie, 
Devant l'eternite, seul avec son genie, 
Son regard vers le ciel parut se soulever ! 
Le signe redempteur toucha son front farouche! 
Et meme on entendit commencer sur sa bouche 
Un nom • . . qu'il n y osait aehever. 

Acheve . . .c'est le Dieu qui regne et qui couronne ! 
C'est le Dieu qui puniti c'est le Dieu qui pardonne ! 
Pour les heros et nous il a des poids divers. 
Parle-lui sans effroi : lui seul peut te comprendre. 
L'esclave et le tyran out tons un compte a rendre, 
L'un du sceptre, 1'autre des fers. 

(Alph. de Lamartine.) 



Levons les yeux vers la colline, 
Ou luit Petoile du matin ! 
Saluons la splendeur divine, 
Qui se leve dans le iointain ! 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 355 

Cette clarte pure et feconde 

Aux yeux de Tame eclaire un monde 

Ou la foi monte sans effort. 

D'un saint espoir ton cceur palpite ; 

Ami! pour y voler plus vite, 

Prenons les ailes de la mort ! 

En vain, dans ce desert aride, 

Sous nos pas tout s'est efface ! 

Viens ! ou l'eternite reside 

On retrouve jusqu'au passe ! 

La sent nos reves pleines de charmes, 

Et nos adieu x trempes de larmes, 

Nos voeux et nos soupirs perdus ! 

La refleuriront nos jeunesses, 

Et les objets de nos tristesses 

A' nos regrets seront rendus ! 

Ainsi, quand les vents de Pautomme 
Ont balaye Pombre des bois, 
L'hirondelle agile abandonne 
Le faite du palais des rois! 
Suivant le soleil dans sa course, 
Elle remonte vers la source 
D'ou l'astre nous repand les jours, 
Et sur ses pas retrouve encore 
Un autre ciel, une autre aurore, 
Un autre nid pour ses amours! 

(Id.) 



dxtvait be VQymnc an &i)xi$t 

Tu parais ! ton verbe vole ! 
Comme autrefois la parole 
Qu'entendit le noir chaos 
De la nuit tira l'aurore, 
Des cieux separa les riots, 
Et du nombre fit eclore 
L'harmonie et le repos, 
Ta parole creatrice 



356 SELECTIONS FROM FRENCH LITERATURE. 

Separe vertus et vice, 
Mensonges et verite. 
Le rnaitre apprend la justice, 
L'esclave la liberte, 
L'indigent le sacrifice, 
Le riche la charite. 
Un Dieu createur et pere, 
En qui l'innocence espere, 
S'abaisse jusqu'aux mortels : 
La priere qu'il appelle 
S'eleve a lui, libre et belle, 
Sans jamais souiller son aile 
Des holocaustes cruels ! 
Nos iniquites, nos crimes, 
Nos desirs illegitimes, 
Voila les seules victimes 
Uu'on immole a ses autels ! 
L'immortalite se leve 
Et brille au dela des temps ; 
L'esperance, divin reve, 
De 1'exil que l'homme acheve 
Abrege les courts instans ; 
L'amour celeste souleve 
Nos fardeaux les plus pesans ; 
Le siecle eternel commence ; 
Le juste a sa conscience, 
Le remords son innocence ; 
L'humble foi fait la science 
Des sages et des enfans! 
Et l'homme, qu'elle console, 
Dans cette seule parole 
Se repose deux mille ans ! 



(Id.; 



VOCABULARY. 



N.J3. In this Vocabulary the following abbreviations are employed : 
art. for article, s. for substantive, m. for masculine, f. for feminine, n. 
for neuter, a. for adjective, pr. for pronoun, v. for verb, v. a. for ac- 
tive verb, v. n. for neuter verb, v. r. for reflexive verb, part, for par- 
ticiple, adv. for adverb, prep, for preposition, i. for interjection, c. for 
conjunction, contr. for contraction, pi. for plural. Every verb not 
marked as a. or n. is both active and neater. 



A. 



A\pr. fo, a£, with, in, into, about, 
according to, for, by. 

Abaisser, v. a. to abase, lower, 
humble. 

s'Abaisser, v. r. to fall, sink. 

Abandonner, v. a. to forsake, 
give over, deliver up. 

Abattu, e. a. afflicted, dejected. 

Abbe, Abbe. 

Abbe, s. m. abbot. 

Abime, s. m. abyss. 

Abondance, s.f. abundance. 

Abondant, e. a. abundant. 

Abonder, v. n. to abound. 

Aborder, v. n. to land. 

Abreger, v. a. to abridge. 

Abri, s. m. shelter. 

Absence, s.f absence. 

Absolu, e. a. absolute, peremp- 
tory. 

Absolument, ad. absolutely, 
quite. 

Abstrait, e. a. abstracted. 



Abus, s. m. abuse. 

Academie, s.f academy. 

Accabler, v. a. to overwhelm. 

Accent, 6*. m. accent, tune, note. 

Aeces, s. m. access,fits. 

Accompli, a. accomplished. 

Accomplir, v. a. to accomplish, 
fulfil, perform. 

Accomplissernent, s.m. accom- 
plishment, fulfilment. 

Accord, s. m. agreement, con- 
cord. 

Accorder, v. a. to grant. 

Accourir, v. n. to run to. 

Accoutume, e. a. accustomed. 

Accroitre, v. n. to augment, in- 
crease. 

Accuser, v. a. to accuse. 

Ac harrier, v. a. to enrage, 

Acbeter, v. a. to purchase, buy. 

Achever, v. a. to finish, com- 
plete, accomplish. 

Acier, s. m. steel, sword. 



358 



VOCABULARY. 



Acquerir, v. a. to acquire, get. 

Acquitter, v. a. to clear. 

Acre, a. sharp. 

Acteur, rice, s. m. actor. 

Actif, ve. a. active. 

Action, s.f. action. 

Activite, 5./. activity, quickness. 

Actuel, le. a. actual, present. 

Adam, Adam. 

Adieu, s. m. adv. — adieu, fare- 
well. 

Admirable, a. admirable. 

Admirateur, s. m. admirer. 

Admiration, s.f. admiration. 

Admirer, v. a. to admire, to 
wonder. 

Adolescence, s.f. adolescency, 
youth. 

Adopter, v. a. to adopt. 

Adorable, a. adorable. 

Adorateur, s. m. worshipper. 

Adorer, v. a. to adore, worship. 

Adoucir, v. a. to soften. 

Adroit, e. a. dextrous, sly. 

£ droit, to the right. 

AfFaiblir, v. a. to weaken. 

Affaire, s.f. affair. 

AfFecter, v. a. to affect. 

Affeterie, s.f. affectation. 

Affligeant, e. a. afflicting, sad. 

s'Affliger, v. r. to grieve. 

Affranchir, v. a. to set free, free. 

Affranchissement, s. m. deliv- 
ery, exemption. 

Affreux, se. a. dreadful, hide- 
ous. 

A fin que, c. to the end that. 

A fin de, in order to. 

Afrique, Africa. 

Agacer, v. a. to vex, provoke, ex- 
cite, stir. 

Age, s. m. age. 

Agile, a. agile, nimble. 



Agir, v. a. to act. 
Agitation, s.f. agitation. 
Agiter, v. a. to agitate, stir, 

disturb. 
Agneau, s. m. a lamb. 
Agonie, s.f. agony. 
Agrandir, v. a. to enlarge, raise. 
Agreable, a. agreeable. 
Agremens, s. pi. charms. 
Agreste, a. rustic, clownish. 
Agriculture, s.f. agriculture. 
Ah ! i. ah ! oh ! alas ! 
Aide, s.f. aid, help. 
Aider, v. a. to help, aid. 
Aigle, s. m. eagle. [spleen. 

Aigreur, s. f sourness, spite, 
Aigu, e. a. sharp, acute. 
Aiguillon, s. m. goad. 
Aile, 5./. wing. 
Ailleurs, adv. elsewhere. 
Aimable, a. amiable, lovely, 

agreeable. 
Aimant, a. loving. 
Aimer, v. a. to love, like, be 

fond of. 
A in si, adv. so, thus, just so. 
Aj outer, v. a. to add. 
Air, s. m. air, wind, carriage. 

manner. 
Airain, s. in. brass. 
Aise, e. a. easy. 
Aisement, adv. easily. 
A' la fois, adv. at once. 
Alaiter, v. a. to suckle. 
Alarme, s.f alarm. 
Alarmer, v. a. to alarm. 
Albane, Albani. 
A 1 cade, alcaid. 
A lee ton, Alecto. 
Alentour, adv. round about. 
Alexandre, Alexander. 
Alexandrie, Alexandria. 
Alexandrin, e. a. Alexandrine. 



VOCABULARY. 



359 



Aliment, s. m. aliment, food, 

Allaiter, v. a. to suckle. 

Allegorie, s.f allegory. 

Allemagne, Germany. 

Aller, v. n. to go, ivalk. 

Allumer, v. a. to light, kindle. 

Aloes, s. m. aloes. 

Alors, adv. at that time, then. 

Alterer, v. a. to disorder, alter. 

Amant, lover, s. m. suitor. 

Amante, s.f. sweetheart. 

Amas, 5. m. heap, pile. [led. 

Amasser, v. a. to heap up, col- 

Ambitieux, se. a. ambitious. 

Ambition, s.f. ambition. 

Ambulant, e. a. strolling. 

Ame, s.f. soul, spirit. 

Amener, v. a. to bring, cause. 

A' mesure, in proportion. 

Ami, 5. m. friend. 

Amitie, s.f friendship. 

Amonceler, v. a. to heap up. 

Amour, s. m. love. — propre, 
self-love. 

Amoureux, se. a. in love with. 

Amphitheatre, s. m. amphithea- 
tre. 

Ample, a. large, wide. 

Ampoule, e. a. high-flown. 

An, s. m. year. 

Analyser, v. a. to analyse. 

Ancetres, s. m. pi. — ancestors. 

Anehise, Jinchises. 

Ancien, ne. a. old. 

Ancien, s. m. elder, senior. 

Anciens, s. pi. ancients. 

Ancre, s.f. anchor, iron brace. 

Andalous, s. m. Andalusian 
(horse.) 

Ane, s. m. ass. 

Aneantir, v. a. to annihilate. 

Ange, s. m. angel. 

Anglais, Englishman. 



Animal, s. m. animal, brute. 

Animer, v.a. to animate, enliven. 

Anneau, s. m. ring. 

Annee, s.f. year. 

Annoncer, v. a. to make known, 
give out, announce, declare. 

Antinoiis, Antinoiis. 

Antique, a. s. antique, ancient. 

Antiquite, s.f. antiquity. 

Antoine, Antony. 

Apanage, s. m. appanage, ap- 
pendix, portion. 

Apercevoir, v. a. to perceive. 

A'-peu-pres,aflfy. nearly, almost. 

Apollon, Apollo. 

Apparaitre, v. n. to appear. 

Apparence, s.f appearance. 

Apparent, e. apparent. 

Appas, s, m. charm. 

Appeler, v. to call, appeal. 

s'Appeler, v. r. to be called. 

Applaudir, v. a. to applaud. 

Applaudissement, 5. m. ap- 
plause. 

Apporter, v. a. to bring, convey. 

Apprecier, v. a. to appreciate. 

A p prendre,?;, a. to learn, inform. 

Appret, s. m. preparation. 

Approcher, v. a. to approach, 
draw near. 

Approprier, v. a. to appropri- 
ate. 

Approuver, v. a. to approve, like. 

Appui, 5. m. support, prop, stay. 

Appuyer, v. a. to support. 

A pre, a. rough. 

Apres, pr. adv. — after, next to. 
— que, c. when, after. 

A qui Ion, s.m. north wind. 

Arabe, Arabian. 

Arabie, Arabia. 

Arborer, to hoist, set up. 

Arbre, s. m. a tree. 



360 



VOCABULARY. 



Architecture, s.f. architecture. 
Ardent, e. a. ardent, burning. 
Ardeur, s.f. ardor. 
Arene, s.f. arena. 
Argent, s. m. silver, money. 
Aride, a. arid, barren. 
Aristide, Aristides. 
Aristocratie, s.f. aristocracy. 
Aristote, Jlristotle. 
Arme, s.f. arm, weapon. 
Armee, s.f army. 
Anner, v. a. to arm. 
Artnure, s.f. armor. 
Arnauld, A maul d. 
Arpinurn, Arpinum, 
Arracher, v. a. to pull, draw, 

take, tear. 
Arranger, v. a. to set in order. 
Arreter, v. a. to stop, rest. 
s' Arreter, v. r. to stop. 
Arriver, v. n. to arrive, come, 

happen, befall. 
Arsenal, s. m. arsenal. 
Art, s. m. art. 
Artere, s.f. artery. 
Artie uler, v. a. to articulate. 
Artifice, s. m. skill. 
Artisan, e. s. m. artificer. 
Artiste, s. m. artist. 
Asie, Asia. 

Aspect, s. m. aspect, look, vision. 
Aspic, s. m. asp. 
Aspire r, v. n. to aspire. 
Assaillir, v. a. to assault, attack. 
Assam, s. m. assault. 
Assemblee, s.f. assembly. 
Asseoir, v. a. to set, lay. 
s'Asseoir, v. r. to sit down. 
Asservir, v. a. to subject, enslave. 
Assez, adv. enough. 
Assignor, v. a. to assign. 
Assister, v. a. to assist, help. 



Assujettir, v. a. to subdue, over- 
come. 

Assurance, s.f. assurance. 

Assure, e. a. sure, confident. 

Assurer, v. a. assure, encour- 
age. 

Astree, Astrma. 

Asyle, s. m. asylum, shelter. 

Athenien, Athenian. 

Athenes, Athens. 

Atome, s. m. atom. 

Attach ant, e. a. engaging. 

Attacher, v. a. to tie, fasten, al- 
lure, attach. 

Attaque, s.f. attack, insult. 

Attaquer, v. a. to attack. 

Atteindre, v.n. to reach, attain. 

Atteinte, s.f. hurt. 

Attend re, to wait, expect, listen. 

Attend rir, v. a. to soften, affect. 

Attendrissement, s. m. commis- 
eration, [of law. 

Attentat, s. m. outrage, violation 

Attentif, ve. a. attentive, intent. 

Attention, s.f. attention, care. 

Attentivement, adv. attentively. 

Attester, v. a. to attest, call to 
witness. 

Attirail, s. m. baggage, train, 
equipage, dress. 

Attirer, v. a. to attract, draw. 

Attraction, s.f attraction. 

Attrait, s. m. allurement, attrac- 
tion; — s, pi. charms, beauty. 

Attribuer, v. a. to attribute, as- 
cribe. 

Attribut, 5. m. attribute. 

Au, art. m. — to the, in, icith,for, 
according. 

Avance, s.f. advance. — D'a- 
vance, in advance, too soon. 

Avancer, t\ a. to advance. 



VOCABULARY. 



361 



s'Avancer, v. r. to move,gofor- 
ward. [deep, 

Avantj prep, before, forward, 

A vantage, s. m. advantage, priv- 
ilege. 

Avare, a. covetous, sordid. 

Avare, s. a miser. 

Avarice, s.f covetousness, 

Aubaine, s.f. windfall. 

Aube, s.f. day-break. 

Aucun, e. a. any, no, none. some. 

Audace, s.f boldness. 

Au dehors, prep, without 

Au-dela, prep, beyond. 

Au-dessus, prep, above. 

Au-devant, adv. before. 

Au-dessous, adv. beneath. 

Auditeur, s. m. auditor. 

Avec, prep. with. 

Avenir, s. m. future. 

Avertir, v. a. to warn, inform. 

Aveu, s. m. confession. 

Aveugle, a. s. blind. 

Aveuglement, s. m. blindness. 

Aveuglement, adv. blindly. 

Augmenter, v. a. to augment, 
increase. 

Auguste, a. august, royal. 

Avide, a. greedy, eager. 

Aujourd'hui, adv. to-day, now. 

Avis, s. m. advice, opinion. 

Avoir, v. a. to have. 

Avouer, v. a. to own. 

Auparavant, adv. before. 

Aupres, prep. near, about, with, 
by. to. 

Aupres, adv. hard by, close by. 

Aurore, s.f Aurora, dawn, morn- 
ing, the east. 

Aussi, c. also, so, too, as. 
Aussi-bien, adv. as well. [soon. 
Aussi-tot, adv. immediately, as 
Autant, adv. as much, as many. 

31 



Autel, s. m. altar. 

Auteur, s. m. author, maker. 

Automne, s.f. autumn. 

Autorite, s.f. authority. 

A u tour, prep, about, round. 

Autre, pr. other, another. 

Autrefois, adv. formerly, here- 
tofore. 

Autrefois, s.f. another time. 

^\utrui, s. m. others, other peo- 
ple. 

Aux, art. pi. — to the. 

Azur, s. m. azure. 



B. 

Babouche, s.f Asiatic slippers, 
Bacchus, Bacchus. 

Bagne, s. m. the place where the 
Turks confine their slaves. 

Baie, s.f. bay-gulf 

Bain, s. m. bath, bagnio. 

Baiser, s. m. ~kiss. 

Baisser, v. to let down, bow, 
stoop, loiver. 

Balancer, v. a. to balance. 

Balayer, v. a. to sweep. 

Balustrade, s.f. balustrade, rails. 

Bannir, v. a. to banish. 

Barbare, a. barbarous, rude. 

Barbe, s.f. beard. 

Barque, s.f. a bark. 

Barre, s.f a bar. 

Barriere, s.f. barrier. 

Bas, se. a. low. 

Bas, adv. low. 

Basse-Bretagne, Loiver Brit- 
tany. 

Bassesse, s. f. baseness, base 
action. 

Bassin, s. m. basin. 

Bataille, s.f. a battle, fight. 



362 



VOCABULARY. 



Bataillon, s. m. battalion. 

Batir, v. n. to build. 

Batterie, 5./. battery. 

Battre, v. a. to beat, strike. 

Bazar, 5. m. bazar. [/m?. 

Beau, Bel, Belle, a. fine, beau- 

Beau co up, adv. much, many. 

Beaute, s.f beauty. 

Beaux-arts, pi. fine arts. 

Belette, s.f. weasel. 

Belier, s. m. ram, Aries, batter- 
ing-ram. 

Belle-soeur, s.f. sister -in-latv. 

Belvedere, Belvedere. 

Benir, v. a. to bless. 

Ben i tier, s. m. holy-water pot. 

Berceau, s. m. cradle. 

fiercer, 'v. a. to rock, amuse. 

(se) fiercer, v. r. to fiatter one's 
self. 

Berger, s. m. shepherd. 

Berthelier, Berthelier. 

Besoin, s. m. want, need. 

Bete, s. f. beast, brute. Bete 
fauve, wild deer. 

Betique, Boztica (in Spain). 

Bien, s. m. good, wealth, benefit. 

Bien, adv. well, many, much, 
very, else. 

Bien-tot, adv. soon, very soon. 

Bienfaisance, s.f. beneficence. 

Bienfait, s. m. favor, benefit. 

Bienfaiteur, s. m. benefactor. 

Bienseance, s.f. decency. 

Biere, s. f beer, coffin. 

Billet, s. m. note, billet. 

Bizarre, a. fantastical, odd. 

Blanc, he, a. white. 

Blanchatre, a. ivhitish. 

Blanehir, v. to whiten. 

Bl^sser, v. a. to wound. 

Bleu, e, a. s. m. — blue. 

Bocage, s. m. a grove, thicket. 



Bocager, e, a. rural. 

Boccace, Boccacio. 

Bceuf, s. m. an ox. 

Boileau, Boileau. 

Bo ire, v. a. to drink. 

Bois, 5. m. wood. 

Boisson, s.f. drink. 

Boiter, v. n. to go lame, limp. 

Bon, ne, a. good, kind, brave, 

skilful, excellent. 
Bon, s. m. good. 
Bonace, s.f calm. 
Bondir, v. n. to bound. [ing. 
Bonheur, s. m. happiness, bless- 
Bonnivard, Bonnivard. 
Bonte, s.f goodness, kindness. 
Bord, s. m. edge, brink, shore. 
Border, v. a. to edge, border. 
Borne, s.f. a bound, limit. 
Borner, v. a. to bound, limit. 
Bosquet, s.m. thicket, grove. 
Bouche, s.f the mouth. 
Bouffir, v. a. to bloat, puff up. 
Bouillant, e. a. hot, hasty. 
Bouillonner, v. n. to bubble up, 

gush out. 
Bourdaloue, Bourdaloue. 
Bourdonner, v. ft. to hum, buzz. 
Bourreau, s. m. executioner, tor- 

menter. 
Bourse, s.f. a purse. 
Bout, 5. m. end. 
Bouteille, s.f a bottle. 
Bouvier, e. s. cowherd, clown. 
Bras, s. m. arm. 
Brasier, s. m. coal-fire, a great 

clear fire. 
Brave, a. s. brave. 
Braver, v. a. to brave. 
Brebis, s.f a sheep, ewe. 
Brenta, Brenta. 
Brider, v. a. to bridle. 
Brievement, adv. briefly. 



VOCABULARY. 



Brigandage, s. m. robbery. 
Brillant, e. a. shining, bright. 
Brillante, part, made brilliant. 
Briller, v. n. to shine, sparkle. 
Brise, s. f. a breeze. 
B riser, v. a. to break, rend. 
Brouillard, s. m. mist. 
Broyer, v. a. to grind, pound. 
Bruit, s. m. a noise, uproar. 
Briilant, e. a. burning, hot, 

eager. 
Brule, s. m. burning. 
Bruler, v. to burn. 
Brume, s.f. a fog. 
Brunir, v. to turn brown. 
Brut, e. a. rough, brute. 
Brutus, Brutus. 
Bucher, s.m. funeral pile. 
Buffon, Buffon. 
Buisson, s. m. bush, thicket. 
But, s. m. a mark, aim t design. 
Byron, Byron. 



C. 

Ca, adv. here. 

Cacher, v. a. to hide, conceal, 
cover. 

Cachot, s. m. a dungeon. 

Cadavre, s. m. corpse, carcase. 

Cadence, e. a. cadenced. 

Caillou, s. m. flint-stone. 

Caius Julius, Caius Julius. 

Calcul,s. m. calculation. 

Calme, a. calm, quiet, still. 

Campagne, 5./. country, field. 

Canal, s. m. canal, channel. 

Candeur, s.f. candour, frank- 
ness. 

Canicule, s.f. dog-star. 

Cantique, s. m. a canticle. 

Canton, s. m. district. 



Canton, Canton. 

Capable, a. capable. 

Capitole. s. m. capitol. 

Caprice, s. m. whim, caprice. 

Captif, ve. a. s. captive. 

Captivite, s.f. captivity. 

Car, c for, because. 

Caractere, s. m. character, style. 

Caracteristique, c.s. characteris- 
tic. 

Caravage, Caravagio. 

Carriere, s.f. career. 

Carrosse, s. m. a coach. 

Carthage, Carthage. 

Cascade, s.f. cascade. 

Caton, Cato. 

Cavalier, s. m. gentleman, horse 
man. 

Cause, s.f. cause, reason. 

Causer, v. n. to cause, talk. 

Causeur, se. s. a babbler. 

Ce, Cet, Cette, pr. this, that, it. 

Ceci, pr. this, these. 

Ceder, t\ a. to cede, yield, re- 
sign. 

Cedre, 5. m. cedar. 

Ceindre, v. a. to gird. 

Cela, pr. that, this. 

Celebration, s.f. solemnity. 

Celebre, a. famous, eminent. 

Celebrer, v. a. to celebrate. 

Celeste, a. celestial, heavenly. 

Celle, pr.f. she, that. 

Cellerier, e. s. caterer. 

Celui, pr. he, that, him. 

Celui-ci, Celle-ci, this. 

Celui-la, Celle-la, that. 

Cent, a. hundred. — , s.m. a 
hundred. 

Centre, s. m. centre. 

Cependant, adv. nevertheless, 
yet. 

Cercle, s. m. a circle. 



364 



VOCABULARY. 



Cercueil, s. m. a coffin, 
Ceremonie, s.f. ceremony, rite. 
Cerf, s. m. a stag. 
Certain, e. a. certain, sure. 
Certainement, adv. certainly. 
Cerveau, 5. m. the brain. 
Ces, pr. these, those. 
Cesar, Ccesar. 

Cesse, s.f. ceasing, intermission. 
Cesser, v. to cease, leave off. 
C'est a dire, that is to say. 
Cet, Cette, pr. this, that. 
Ceux, Celles, pr. these, those. 
Ceux-la, pr. those. 
Chacal, s. m. jackal. 
Chacun, e. pr. every one, each. 
Chagrin, s. m. grief, vexation. 

— , e, morose, sad. 
Chain e, s.f chain. 
Chair, s.f flesh. 
Chaleur, s.f. heat, warmth. 
Chambre, s.f chamber, room. 
Chameau, s. m. a camel. 
Champ, s.f. afield. 
Chancelant, e. a. unsteady. 
Changeant, e. a. changeable. 
Changement, s. m. change. 
Changer, v. a. to change, alter. 
Chanson, s.f. a song. 
Chant, s. m. singing, tune, canto, 

song. 
Chanter, v, a. to sing. 
Chaos, s. m. chaos, confusion. 
Chapeau, s. m. a hat. 
Chapelet, 6'. m. chaplet, rosary. 
Chaque,p?\ each, every. 
Chard on, s. m. thistle. 
Charge, s.f employment, place, 

office. 
Charger, v. a. to load. 
Charite, s.f charily, alms. 
Charme, s. m. charm. 
Charrette, s.f. a cart. 



Chasser, v. a. to hunt, drive 
away. 

Chaste, a. chaste, pure, neat. 

Chat, 5. m. cat. 

Chateau, s. m. a castle, seat. 

Chaudeau, s. m. caudle. 

Chaume, s. m. stubble, thatch. 

Chaumiere, s.f. a thatched cot- 
tage. 

Chaumine, s. m. small cottage, 

Chauve-souris, s.f. a bat. 

Chef, s. m. head, chief, leader. 

Chemin, s. m. way, road. 

Cheminer, v. n. to walk, go. 

Chemise, s.f shirt, shift. 

Cher, e. a. dear. 

Chereher, v. a. to seek. 

Chere, s.f. cheer, treat. 

Cherement, adv. dearly. 

Cherir, v. a. to cherish, love. 

Cheval, s. m. a horse. 

Cheveu, s. m. a hair. [with, 

Chez, prep, at, or to one's house , 

Chien, s. m. a dog. 

Chillon, Chillon. [cy. 

Chi mere, s.f chimera, idle fan- 

Choisir, v. a. to choose. 

Choix, s. m. choice. 

Choquant, e, a. shocking, offen- 
sive. 

Chose, s.f. thing. 

Chretien, ne, a. s. Christian. 

Christ, s. m. Christ. 

Ci, adv. here. 

Ciceron, Cicero. 

Ciel, s. m. sky, heaven. 

Ciment, s. m. cement. 

Cimetiere, s.f a church-yard. 

Cingler, v. n. to sail before the 
wind. 

Cinquante, a. fifty. 

Circonference, s.f circumfer- 
ence. 



Vocabulary. 



365 



Circonstance, s.f circumstance. 

Ciron, s.f. a handworm, mite. 

Cirque, s. m. circus. 

Cite, s.f. a city, town. 

Citoyen, ne, s. a citizen. 

Civil, e, a. civil. 

Clair, e, a. clear. — , adv. clear- 
Jy. 

Clairon, s. m. clarion. 

Clair- voyant, e. a. clear-sighted. 

Clarte, s.f. clearness, light. 

Classe, 5./. class. 

Climat, s. m. climate, clime. 

Cloche, s.f a hell. 

Clocher, s. m. steeple. 

Cloitre, s.f. a cloister. 

Clou, s. m. nail. 

Coeur, s. m. the heart. 

Coiffure, s.f a head-dress. 

Coin, s. m. corner. 

Colere, s.f anger, wrath. — , 
a. passionate. 

Colisee, s. m. Colis&um. 

Collecte, s.f. collect, gathering. 

CoHine, s.f a hill. 

Colombe, s.f. a dove. 

Colonie, s. f a colony, planta- 
tion. 

Colonne, s.f. a column, pillar. 

Colosse, s. m. colossus. 

Combat, s. m. afght, battle. 

Combattant, s. m. a combatant. 

Combattre, v. to fight, combat. 

Coinbien, adv. how, how much. 

Conibler, v. a. heap up, fill, 
crown. 

Commandement, s. m. com- 
mandment. 

Commander, v. a. to command, 
order. 

Commandeur, s. m. commander. 

Com me, c. adv. as, almost, how, 
as it were. 

*31 



Commencer, v. to begin. 
Comment, adv. how, why. 
Commerc-ant, e. a. trading. 
Commerce, s. m. intercourse. 
Commettre, v. a. to commit. 
Comrriun, e. a. common, mean, 

public. 
Communiquer, v. a. to commu- 
nicate. 
Compagne, s.f. a female com- 
panion. 
Compagnie, s.f. company. 
Cornpagnon, s. m. companion, 

fellow. 
Comparaison, s.f. comparison. 
Comparer, v. a. to compare, con- 

fer. 
Compassion, s. f compassion, 

pity. 
Compere, s. m. a gossip. 
Competiteur, s. m. competitor, 

rival. 
Complaisance, s. f. complai- 
sance, complacency. 
Complaisant, e. a. s. complai- 
sant. 
Complet, e. a. complete, perfect. 
Compliment, s. m. compliment, 

ceremony. 
Composition, s.f. composition. 
Cornprendre, v. a. to compre- 
hend. 
Compte, s. m. account. 
Compter, v. a. to count, reckon. 
Conception, s.f. conception. 
Concert, s. m. concert. 
Concevoir, v. a. to conceive. 
Con citoyen, s. m. fellow citizen. 
Conclusion, s.f. conclusion. 
Concours, s. m. concurrence. 
Condamner, v. a. to condemn. 
Condition, 5./. condition. 
Conduire, v. a. to conduct. 



366 



VOCAEULARY. 



Conduite, s.f. conduct. 

Confiance, s.f. confidence, trust. 

Confier, v. a. to entrust. 

Confins, s. m. pi. —-confines. 

Confirmer, v. a. to confirm. 

Confondre, v. a. to confound. 

Conformation, s.f. conforma- 
tion. 

Conform ite, s. f. conformity, 
likeness. 

Confusion, s.f. confusion, dis- 
order, 

Conge, s. m. leave. 

Conjurer, v. a. to conjure, en- 
treat. 

Connaitre, v. a. to know. 

Conquerir, v. a. to conquer. 

Conquete, s. f. conquest. 

Consacrer, v. a. to consecrate, 
devote. 

Conscience, s. f. conscience, 
consciousness. 

Conseiller, v. a. to counsel, ad- 
vise. 

Consentement, s.m. consent. 

Consequence, s.f. consequence. 

Conserver, v. a. to preserve, 
serve, keep in pay. 

Considerable, a. considerable. 

Considerer, v. a. to consider. 

Consister, v. a. to consist, lie. 

Consolation, 5. /. consolation, 
comfort. 

Consoler, v. a. to comfort. 

Consommer, v. a. to consum- 
mate. 

Constamment, adv. with con- 
stancy, constantly. [ness. 

Constance, s.f. constancy ,firm- 

Constant, e. a. constant. 

Coi\st8LnUno\)\e,Constantinople. 

Consumer, v. a. to consume, 
waste. 



Conte, s. m. story, tale. 

Contemplation, s.f. contempla- 
tion. 

Contempler, v. a. contemplate. 

Content, e. a. contented, pleased. 

Contenter, v. a. to content, sat- 
isfy, please. 

Conter, i\ a. to relate. 

Conteur, se, s. a teller. 

Continent, s. m. main land. 

Continue], le, a. continual. 

Continuellement, adv. continu- 
ally, [on. 

Continuer, v. a. to continue, go 

Contour, s. m. contour, outline. 

Contraindre, v. a. to constrain. 

Contraire, s. m. contrary. 

Contraste, s. m. contrast. 

Contraster, v. a. to contrast. 

Contre^ prep, against. 

Contree, s.f. country, region. 

Contrefaire, v. a. to counterfeit? 
ape, feign, 

Convenir, v. n. to agree, suit. 

Conversation, s.f. conversation . 

Converser, v. n. to converse. 

Convier, v. a. to invite. 

Copie, s.f a copy. 

Corbinelli, Corbinelli. 

Corne, s.f horn. 

Corps, s. m. a body. 

Corriger, v. a. to correct. 

Corrompre, v. a. to corrupt, 

Cortez, Cortez. 

Cote, s. f. coast. 

Cote, s. m. side. 

Coteau, 5. 711. hillock. 

Cou, s. m. the neck. 

Couche, s.f a bed. 

(se) Coucher, v. r. to lie down. 

Coulant, e. a. fluent, flowing. 

Couler, v. n. to flow, run. Se 
Couler, v. r. to slip along. 



VOCABULARY. 



367 



Couleur, s.f. color, suit at play. 

Couleurs, s.f. pi. livery. 

Coup, s. m. blow, stroke, shot. 

Coupe, s.f. cup. 

Cour, s.f. court. 

Courage, s. m. courage, heart. 

Courageux, se, a. courageous. 

Courber, v. a. to bend, bow. 

Courir, v. n. to run. 

Couronne, s.f. a crown. 

Couronner, v. a. to crown. 

Courroucer, v. a. to irritate. 

Courroux, s. m. wrath. 

Cours, s. m. course. 

Course, s.f. race, course. 

Coursier, s. m. courser, steed. 

Court, e. a. short, brief. 

Couter, v. n. to cost. 

Coutume, s.f. custom. 

Couvert, e. a. covered. 

Couvrir, v. a. to cover, conceal. 

Cracber, v. a. to spit. 

Craindre, v. a. to fear, dread. 

Crainte, s.f. fear, awe. 

Craiutif, ve. a. fearful, timo- 
rous. 

(se) Cramponner, v. a. to cling 
to anything. 

Crapuleux, se. a. intemperate. 

Createur, s. m. Creator. — , a. 
creative. 

Creation, 5. /. creation. 

Creature, s.f creature. 

Credit, s. m. credit, interest. 

Creer, v. a. to create. 

Creneau, s. m. battlement. 

Creuser, v. a. to dig, drive into. 

Creux, s. m. hollow. — , se, a. 
hollow. 

Cri, s. m. cry. 

Crier, v. n. to cry out. 

Crime, s. m. crime, sin. 

Criniere, s.f. horse's mane. 



Critique, a. critical. — , s.f 

criticism. 
Croire, v. a. to believe, think. 
(se)Croire,v.?*.£o suppose one has. 
Croiser, v. a. to cross. 
Croitre, v. n. to grow. 
Croquer, v. n. to cranch, devour. 
Croyant, s. m. a believer. 
Cruel, le. a. cruel, hard. 
Cueillir, v. a. to gather. 
Cuir, s. m. leather, hide. 
Cuirasse, s.f. a cuirass. 
Culte, s. m. worship. 
Cupidite, s.f. cupidity. 
Curiosite, s.f curiosity. 
C uver, v. n. to work. 
Cygue, s. m. swan. 
Cypres, s.m. cypress-tree. 

D. 

D'abord, at first. 
Dalle, s.f. a flag (flat stone.) 
Dame, s.f. lady. 
Danger, s.' m. danger. 
Dangereux, se. a. dangerous. 
Dans, prep. in. 
Danser, v. n. to dance. 
Darder, v. a. to dart, shoot. 
Dater, v. a. to date. 
Datte, s.f. date (fruit.) 
Davantage, adv. more. 
D'autre, others. [some. 

De, prep, of, from, to, with, by, 
Debat, s. m. debate, strife. 
Se debattre, v. r. to struggle. 
Debauche, s. f. debauchery. 
Debile, a. feeble. 
Debiter, v. a. to utter, issue. 
Debout, adv. up, standing. 
Debris, s. m. ruins, relics, wreck. 
Deceler, v. a. to delect, disclose, 
betray. 



368 



VOCABULARY. 



Decence, s.f. decency, decorum. 

Decerner, v. a. to decree, ordain, 

Dechainer, v. a. to unchain. 

Dec hirer, v. a. to tear. 

Dechoir, v. n. to fall. 

Decider, v. to decide. 

Declamer, v. to declaim. 

Declarer, v. n. to declare. 

Decomposer, v. a. to decompose, 
resolve. 

Decorer, v. a. to decorate, adorn. 

Decourager, v. a. to discourage, 
depress. 

Decouvert, e. a. uncovered, open. 

D^couverte. s.f. discovery. 

Decouvrir, v. a. to uncover, dis- 
cover, reveal. Se — , v. r. to 
make orce's self known. 

Decrepit, e. a. decrepit, crazy. 

Decret, s. m. decree. 

Decrire, v. a. to describe. 

Dedaigneux, se. a. disdainful, 
scornful. 

Dedain, s. m. disdain, scorn. 

Dedans, adv. prep, in, within, 
— , s. m. the inside. 

Deesse, s.f. goddess. 

Defailiir, v. n. to fail, swoon. 

Defant, s. m. defect, blemish, 
fault. 

Defectueux, se. a. defective. 

Defend re, v. a. to defend. 

Defense, s.f. defence. 

Deference, s. f regard. 

Defiance, s.f distrust, suspicion. 

Defigurer, v. a. to disfigure. 

Degager, v. n. to disengage. 

Degout, 5. m. disgust. 

Degrader, v.a. to degrade, waste. 

Degre, s. m. step, degree. 

Deguisement, s. m. disguise. 

Dehors, 5. m. outside, outworks. 

Deja, adv. already. 



De-la, adv. from thence. 

Delabrement, s. m. ruinous con- 
dition. 

Delabrer, v. a. to impair, ruin. 

Delasser, v. a. to refresh. 

Delicat, e. a. delicate, nice. 

Delicatesse, s.f delicacy. 

Deli re, s. m. delirium. 

Demain, s. m. adv. — tomorrow. 

Demander, v. a. to demand, ask. 

Demarche, s.f gait. [ceive. 

Demeler, v. a. to discover, per- 

Demeure, s.f dwelling, abode. 

Demeurer, v.n. to continue, stay, 
remain. [half 

Demi, e. a. half, demi. — , adv. 

Democratic, 5./. democracy. 

Demoiselle, s.f a miss. 

Demon, s. m. a demon, devil. 

Demosthene, Demosthenes. 

Depasser, v. a. to surpass. 

Dependre, v. n. to depend on. 

Depens, s. m. pi. — expense, cost. 

Depense, s.f. expense. 

Depit, s. m. vexation, despite. 

Deplacer, v. a. to displace. 

Deplaire, v. n. to displease. 

Deployer, v. a. to display. 

Di poser, v. n. to deposit. 

Depositaire, s. depository. 

Depouiller, v. a. to strip, cast off. 

Depourvoir, v. a. to leave des» 
titute, deprive. 

Depuis, adv. prep. — since 9 af- 
ter. — long temps, this great 
while. 

Derechef, adv. again, anew. 

Dernier, e. a. last. — , s. m. 
the last, the id most. 

Derober, to rob, coriceal, de- 
prive, take. 

Derouler, v. a. to unroll. 

Derriere, prep, behind. 



VOCABULARY. 



369 



Des, prep. from. 

Des, contr. of De les. 

Des que, c. when, since, as soon 

as. 
Desagrement, s. m. disagreea- 

bleness. 
Desarmer, v. a. to disarm. 
Descendre, v. n. to descend. 
Descriptif, ve, a. descriptive. 
Description, s.f. description. 
Desert, s. m. desert, witderness. 
Desertion, s.f. desertion. 
Desespoir, s. m. despair, grief 
Deshonorer, v. a. to disgrace, 

disparage. 
Desir, s. m. desire, ivish. 
Desirer, v. a. to desire, wish, 

long for. 
Desolation, s.f. desolation, ex- 

treme grief. 
Desoler, v. a. to afflict, lay waste. 
Despote, s. m. a despot, a 

scourge. 
Despotisine, s. m. despotism. 
Despreaux, Despreaux. 
Dessecher, v. a. to wither, dry 

up. 
Dessein, s. m. design. 
Dessous, adv. prep. — under 

beneath. 
Dessus, adv. prep, above, upon. 
Destin, s. m. destiny, fate. 
Destination, s. f destination, 

appointment. 
Destinee, s.f. destiny. 
Destiner, v. to design. 
Detacher, v. a. to detach. 
Detail, s. m. particular. 
Detonner, v. a. to jar, be out of 

tune. 
De Toulon, De Toulon. 
Detour, s. m. winding, 
Detourner, v. a. to turn aside. 



De Troyes, De Troyes. 

Detruire, v. a. to destroy, de- 
molish. 

Dette, s.f. debt. 

Devancer, v. a. to outstrip. 

Devant, adv. prep, before. 

Developpement, s. m. unfold- 
ing. 

Developper, v. a. to unfold. 

Devenir, v. a. to become. 

Deuil, s. m. mourning, sorrow. 

Deviner, v. a. to divine, guess. 

Devoir, s. m. duty. 

— , v. a. to owe, must, ought. 

Devorer, v. a. to devour, con- 
sume, 

Devotion, s.f. devotion. 

Devouer, v. a. to devote, dedi- 
cate. 

Deux, a. two. 

Diction, s.f diction, style. 

Dieu, s. m. God. 

Differemment, cdv. differently. 

Difference, s.f. difference. 

Different, e. a. different, unlike, 
various. 

Difficile, a. difficult. 

Difformite, s.f deformity, ug- 
liness. 

D iff us, e. a. diffuse. 

Digerer, v. a. to digest. 

Digue, a. worthy. 

Dignement, adv. worthily. 

D ignite, s.f. dignity. 

Digue, s.f. a dyke, bank, pier. 

Diligent, e. a. diligent. 

Dine, Diner, s. m. dinner. 

Dire, v. a. to tell, say, speak. 

Diriger, v. a. to direct, rule. 

Disciple, s. m. disciple, pupil. 

Discipline, s.f. discipline. 

Discourir, v. n. to discourse. 

Discours, s. m. discourse. 



370 



VOCABULARY. 



Discret, e. a. discreet, wary. 

Disparaitre, v. n. to disappear. 

Dispenser, v. a. to distribute. 

Disperser, v. a. to disperse, scat- 
ter. 

(se) Disposer, v. r. to get ready. 

Disproportion, 5. f. dispropor- 
tion. 

Disputer, v. a. dispute, contend. 

Dissimulation, s.f. dissimula- 
tion. 

Dissiper, v. n. to dissipate. 

Distance, s.f. distance. 

Distinct! f, ve. a. distinctive. 

Distinction, s.f. distinction. 

Distinguer, v. a. to distinguish, 
note. 

Distribuer, v. a. to distribute. 

Divers, e. a. diverse. 

Divert ir, v. a. to divert, recreate. 

Divertissement, s.m. diversion. 

Divin, e. a. divine. 

Diviser, v. a. to divide. 

Docile, a. docile. 

Dogmatique, a. dogmatical. 

Doigr, s. m. a finger. 

Dolent, e. doleful, querulous. 

Domain, s. m. domain. 

Domination, s.f. dominion. 

Dominer, v.n. to rule, command. 

Dommage, s. m. damage, loss. 

Dompter, Domter, v. a. to sub- 
due, tame. 

Don, s. m. a gift. 

Done, c. therefore, then. 

Donner, v. a. to give, hit, tum- 
ble, strike. 

Dont, pr. whereof, of whom, of 
which, with which, whose. 

Dorer, v. a. to gild. 

Dormir, v. n. to sleep. 

Dos, s. m. back. 

Doter, v. a. to endow. 



D'ou, pr. from whence. 

Double, a. double. 

Doublement, adv. doubly. 

Doucement, adv. softly, gently. 

Douceur, s.f. sweetness, soft- 
ness, mildness. Douceurs, pi. 
sweet things. 

Doner, v. a. to endow. 

Douleur, s./. pain, grief 

Doute, s. m. doubt, fear. 

Douter, v.n. to doubt, question. 

Douteux, se, a. doubtful. 

Doux, a. m. Douce, a.f. sweet , 
mild, easy, affable. 

Douze, a. twelve. 

Drap, s. m. cloth, sheet. 

Drape, part, arranged, worn. 

Draper, v. a. to hang. 

Draperie, s.f drapery. 

Dresser, v. a. to raise. 

Droit, e. a. right. — , s. m. 
right, law. — , adv. straight, 
directly. 

Du, art. some, of the, from, from 
the. Du moins, at least. 

Due, s. m. duke. 

Du Plessis, Du Plessis. 

Dur, e. a. firm. 

Durement, adv. hardily. 

Durable, a. lasting. 

Durant, prep, during. 

Durer, v. n. to last. 



E. 

Eau, s.f ivater, raui. 
Ebranler, v. a. to shake, stag- 

• ger. 
Ecarte, a. remote, retired. 
s'Kearter, v. r. to swerve. 
Ecbafaud, s. m. a scaffold. 
Echapper, v. a. to escape. 



VOCABULARY. 



371 



EchaufTer, v. a. to heat. 
s^Echauffer, v. a. to grow an- 

gry- 

Echo, s. m. an echo. 

Eclair, s. m. lightning. Com- 
me un eclair, in a trice. 

Eclaircir, v. a. to brighten. 

Eclairer, v. a. to light, enlight- 
en, sparkle. 

Eclat, s. m. pomp, lustre, splen- 
dor. 

Eclatant, e. a. shining, bright. 

Eclater, v. n. to glitter. 

Eclipser, v. a. to eclipse. 

s''Ecli})ser, v. r. to vanish away, 
to be eclipsed. 

Eclore, v. a. to come to light. 

Eclose, a. bloomed. 

Ecole, s.f. a school. 

Econome, a. s. saving, econo- 
mical. 

Ecorce, s.f. bark, shell, outside. 

Ecouler, v. a. to run, or flow out. 

s''Ecouler, v. r. to slide away. 

Ecouter, v. a. to hear, to listen. 

•e'Ecrier, v.r. to cry out, exclaim. 

Ecrire, v. a. to write. 

Ecriture, s. m. writing, Scrip- 
ture. 

Ecrivain, s. m. a writer. 

Ecrouler, v. n. to shake down, 
fall down. 

Ecu, s. m. crown-piece. 

Ecueil, s. m. a rock, sands. 

Ecume, s.f. scum, froth, foam. 

Edifice, s. m. edifice, fabric. 

Effacer, v. a. to efface. 

EfTectivement, adv. really. 

Effet, s. m. effect, fact, deed, ex- 
ecution. 

Effort, s. m. effort. 

EfTrayer, v. a. to frighten, scare. 

Effrene, e. a. unruly. 



Effroi, s. m. fright, terror. 

Effroyable, a. frightful. 

Egal, e. a. s. equal, even. 

Egalement, adv. equally, alike. 

Egaler, v. a. to equal. 

Egard, s. m. regard, respect. 

Eglise, s.f. a church. 

Egorger, v. a. to slaughter. 

Egypte, Egypt. 

Egyptien, tie, Egyptian. 

Eh ! i. ah ! 

E lancer, v. n. to rush, shoot for- 
wards. 

Elegance, s.f. elegance. 

Elegant, e. a. elegant, fine. 

Elegie, s.f an elegy. 

Element, 5. m. element. 

Elevation, s.f. elevation, pre- 
ferment, exaltation. 

Elever, v.a. to raise, exalt. 

s''Elever, v. r. to rise, arise. 

Elle, pr.f. she, her, it. Elles, 
pi. they, them. 

Elocution, s.f elocution, style. 

Eloigne, e. a. removed, distant. 

Eloignement, s. m. aversion, 
estrangement. 

Eloigner, v. a. to remove, es- 
trange. 

Eloquence, s.f. eloquence. 

Eloquent, e. a. eloquent. 

Email, s. m. enamel. 

Embarquer, v. a. to embark. 

Embarras, s. m. embarrassment. 

Embarrasser, v.a. to embarrass, 
encumber. 

Embellir, v. a. to embellish, a- 
dorn. 

s'Embourber, v. a. to be mired, 
sink. 

Embrasser, v. a. to embrace, 
comprehend, encompass. 

Emotion, s.f. emotion. 



372 



VOCABULARY. 



Emousser, v. a. to blunt, dull. 

s'Emparer, v. r, to seize. 

Empecher, v. a, to hinder, pre- 
vent. 

s'Empecher, v. r. to forbear. 

Em pester, v. a. to infect. 

Emphase, s.f. emphasis. 

Empire, s. m. empire, command, 
sivay. 

Emploi, s. m. employment, of- 
fice. 

Employer, v. a. to use, employ. 

Empocher, v. a. to pocket. 

Empoisonner, v. a. to poison. 

Emporter, v. a. to carry away. 

Empreinte, s. f. impression, 
stamp. 

Empresse, e. a. eager, in haste. 

Empru nter, v. a. to borrow. 

En, prep, in, into. 

En arriere, adv. behind. 

En ha in, adi). above, on high. 

En, pr. — of him, of her, of 
them, of it, on it, from it, for 
it, at it, to it, it, any, some. 

Enceinte, s.f. enclosure, com- 
pass, [nect. 

Enchainer, v. a. to chain, con- 
Enchanter, v. a. to enchant, 
charm, delight. 

Enchanteur, a. enchanting. 

Enclore, v. a. to enclose. 

Encore, adv. yet, again, even, 
besides, still, also. 

Endormir, v. a. to lull asleep. 

s'Endormir, v. r. to fall asleep. 

Endroit, s. in. a place, part. 

Eneide, s.f. Mntid (poem). 

Energie, s.f energy, force. 

Enerver, v. a. to enervate. 

Enfance, s.f. infancy. 

Enfant, s. m. child, infant* 

Enfanter, v. a. to bring forth. 



Enfer, s. m. hell. 

Enfermer, v. a. to shut. 

En tin, adv. in fine, at last. 

Enflamme, part, fiery. 

Enflammer, v. a. to inflame. 

Enfler, v. to swell, puff up. 

Enfonce, e. a. sunk. 

s'Enfoncer, v.r. to plunge one^s- 
self wholly into, sink. 

Enfouir, v. a. to hide in the 
ground. 

s'Enfuir, v. r. run away. — , 
v. a. to disappear. 

Engagement, s. m. engagement. 

Engager, v. a. to enlist, engage. 

Engourdir, v. a. to benumb, dull. 

Enivrer, v. n. to intoxicate. 

Enjoue, e. a. cheerful, gay. 

Ennemi, e. a. s. enemy, foe. 

Ennui, s. m. tediousness, vexa- 
tion, heaviness. 

Ennuyeux, se. a. s. wearisovie. 

Enrichir, v. r. to enrich. 

Enseignement, s. m. instruc- 
tion. 

Enseigner, v. a. to teach. • 

Ensemhle, adv. together. 

Enserrer, v. a. to shut up, con- 
tain. 

Ensevelir, v. a. to bury, inter. 

Ensuite, adv. afterwards, then. 

Entasser, v. a. to heap up. 

Entendre, v. a. to understand, 
mean. 

Entendu, e. a. knowirig. 

Enterrer, v. a. to bury, inter. 

Enthousiasme, s. m. enthusi- 
asm. 

Enthousiaste, s. m. enthusiast. 

Entier, e. a. entire, whole. 

Entierement, adv. — entirely, 
wholly. 

Phitourer, v. a. to surround. 



VOCABULARY. 



373 



Entrainer, v. a. to drag, hurry 
away t draw after. 

Entraves, s.f pi. — shackles ,fet- 
ters. 

Entre, prep, between, among, in. 

Entreprise, s.f. enterprise. 

Entrer, v. n. to enter, go in. 

Entretenir, v. a. to converse, pre- 
serve, maintain. 

Entretien, s. m. discourse. 

Entrevoir, v. a. have a glimpse 

of- 
Entr'ouvert, part, half open. 
s'Entr'ouvrir, v. r. to open, gape. 
Envelopper, v. a. to wrap up, 

surround. 
Envers, prep, towards, to. 
Envi, s. m. — a Penvi, with 

emulation. 
Envie, s.f. envy. 
Envier, v. a. to envy. 
Envieux, se. a. s. envious. 
Environner, v. a. to environ, 

surround. 
Envisage!', v. a. to view, consider. 
Envoler, v. n. — s'Envoler, 

v. r. to fly away. 
Envoyer, v. a. to send. 
Epais, se. a. thick, dull. 
Epargne, s.f. saving. 
Epars, e. a. scattered, loose. 
Epaule, s.f. shoulder. 
Epee, s.f. a sword. 
Epervier, s. m. sparrow-hawk. 
Epine, s.f. a thorn. 
Epiihete, s.f an epithet. 
E pit re, s.f. an epistle. 
Epouse, s.f. a spouse, consort. 
Epoi I van tattle, a. dreadful. 
Epouyante, s.f. fright, terror. 
Epouvanter, v. a. to frighten. 
Eponx, s. m. spouse. 
Epreuve, s.f. trial, proof. 

32 



Eprouver, v. a. to try, expe- 
rience. 
Epuiser, v. a. to exhaust. 

Epurer, v. a. to refine. 

Equite, s.f. equity, justice. 

Errant, e. a. straying, wander- 
ing. 

Errer, v. n. to wander. 

Erreur, s.f. an error, folly. 

Erudition, s.f. erudition, learn- 
ing. 

Esc lavage, s. m. slavery, bond- 
age. 

Esc lave, s. a slave. 

Espace, s. m. a space, distance. 

Espajjnol, Spaniard. 

Espece, s. m. species, kind. 

Esperance, s.f. hope, trust. 

Esp'rer, v. a. to hope. 

Espoir, s. m. hope, trust. 

Esprir, s. m. spirit, mind, ge- 
nius, sense, wit. 

Essayer, v. to try, attempt. 

Estimer, v. a. to tsteem, value. 

Estomac, s. m. the stomach. 

Et, c. and. 

Etablir, v. a. to establish. 

Eiage, a. storied. 

Etaler, v. a. to make parade of. 

Etat, s. m. state. 

s'Eteindre, v. r. to go out. 

Etendard, s. m. standard, ban- 
ner. 

Etendre, v. a. to extend, stretch. 

s'Etendre, v. r. to stretch one's 
self, reach. 

Etendue, s.f extent, extension. 

Eternel, le. a. eternal, endless. 

Eterniser, v. a. to eternize. 

Elernite, s.f eternity. 

Eternuer, v. ft. to sneeze. 

Etincelle, s.f. a spark. 

Etinceler, v. n. to sparkle. 



374 



VOCABULARY. 



Etoffe, s.f. stuff, cloth, 

Etoile, s.f. a star. 

Etonnant, e. a. wonderful, 

amazing, strange. 
Etonner, v. a. to astonish, sur- 
prise. — s'Etonner, v. r. to 

wonder. 
Etouffer, v. a. to stifle, suppress. 
Etourdi, e. a. hair-brained. 
Etourdi, e. s. blunderer. 
Etrange, a. strange. 
Etranger, e. a. foreign, strange. 
Etranger, e. s. a foreigner, 

stranger. 
Etrangler, v. a. to strangle. 
Etre, v. n. to be. — Etre, s. m. a 

being, existence. 
Etroit, e. a. narrow. 
Etude, s.f. study. 
Evangile, s. m. the gospel. 
s'Evanouir, v.r. to sivoon, van- 

ish. 
Eveiller, v. a. to awaken, awake, 

rouse, 
Evenement, s. m. event. 
Eviter, v. a. to avoid, shun. 
Europe, Europe. 
Eux, pr. them, they. — m£mes, 

themselves. 
Exact, e. a. exact, accurate. 
Exageration, s.f. amplifying, 

exaggeration. 
Exagerer, v. a. to exaggerate. 
Exagereux, se, s. exagerator. 
Exalter, v. a. to exalt. 
Examen, s. m. examination. 
Examiner, v. a. to examine. 
Excepte, adv. except, save. 
Exces, s. m. excess. 
Excessif, ve. a, excessive. 
Exciter, v. a. to excite, kindle. 
Executer, v. a. to execute. 
Execution, s.f. execution. 



Exemple, s. m.f. example, in- 
stance. 

Exercer, v. a. to exercise, train, 
practise. [tice. 

Exercice, s. m. exercise, prac- 

Exiger, v. a. to require, exact. 

Exil, s. m. banishment, exile. 

Existence, s.f. existence, being. 

Exister, v. a. to exist, be. 

Experience, s.f. experience. 

Expirer, v.n. to expire, die. 

Expliquer, v. a. to explain. 

Exploit, s. m. exploit, achieve* 
ment. 

Expression, s.f. expression. 

Exprimer, v. a. to express. 

Exterieur, s. m. the outside. 

Ex trait, s. m. extract, abstract. 

Extraordinaire, a. extraordu 
nary, uncommon. 

Extreme, s. m. extreme. 

Extremite, s.f. extremity, ut- 
most part. 



Fabert, Fabert. 

Fable, s.f fable, story. 

Face, s.f face, slate. 

Facile, a. easy. 

Facilite, s.f. facility, easiness. 

Facon, s.f. manner. 

Factieux, se. a. factious. 

Faculte, s.f . faculty, poiver. 

Fa'i, Fat. 

Faible, weak. 

Faiblesse, s.f iceakness. 

Faillir, v. n. to fail. 

Faim, s.f. hunger. 

Fa ire, v. n. to make, do. 

Fait, s. m. fact, feat. 

Faite, s. m. top, pinnacle. 



VOCABULARY. 



375 



Falloir, v. imp. to be needful. 

Fameux, se. a. famous. 

Familier, e. a. familiar, free. 

Famille, s.f family. 

Famine, s.f. famine, dearth. 

Fanatisme, s. m. fanaticism. 

Faner, v. a. to fade. 

(se) Faner, v. r. to wilher,fade. 

Fanfare, s.f. a flourish of a 
trumpet. 

Fantaisie, s.f fancy, mind. 

Fantome, 5. m. phantom. 

Fardeau, s. m. burden. 

Farouche, a. wild, stern. 

Fasciner, v. a. to enchant, fas- 
cinate. 

Faste, s. m. pageantry, pomp. 

Fatal, e. fatal. 

Fatalite, s.f fatality, destiny. 

Fatigue, s.f. fatigue. 

Fatiguer, v. a. to tire, fatigue. 

Faveur, s.f. favor. 

Favorable, a. favorable, kind. 

Favorin, Favorinus. 

Fausset, s. m. falsetto. 

Faussete, s.f. falsehood. 

Faute, s.f. fault, error. 

Fauteuil, s. m. an elbow chair. 

Fauve, a. fallow. 

Faux, Fausse, a. false. 

Fecond, e. a. fruitful, teeming, 
fertile. 

Feconder, v. a. to fertilize. 

Feindre, v. to feign. 

Felicite, s.f felicity, bliss. 

Fern me, s.f. a woman, wife. 

Fendre, v. a. to cleave, crack. 

Fenelon, Fenelon. 

Fer, s. m. iron, sword. 

Ferme, a. firm, steady, resolute. 

Fermer, v. a. to shut, close,stop. 

Fermete, s.f firmness, courage. 

Feroce, a. fierce, savage. 



Ferocite, s.f. ferocity. 

Fertile, a. fertile. 

Fete, s.f. a feast, festival. 

Feu, s. m.fire. 

Feu, e. a. late, deceased. 

Feve, s.f. bean. 

Feu i lie, s.f. leaf. 

Fiction, s.f. fiction, lie. 

Fidele, a. faithful. 

Fier, e. a. proud. 

Fierte, s.f pride, haughtiness. 

Fievre, s.f. a fever, ague. 

Figuier, s. m. a fig-tree. 

Figure, s.f. figure, form, shape. 

Figure, e, a. figurative. 

Figurer, v. a. to figure. 

Filial, e. a. filial. 

Fille, s.f. girl, maid, daughter. 

Fils, s. m. son, child, boy. 

Filtrer, v. a. to filtrate. 

Fin, s.f. end. 

Finesse, s.f. delicacy. 

Finir, v. a. to finish, end. 

Firmament, s.m. the firmament, 

sky. 
Fixe, a. fixed, steady. 
Fixer, v. a. to reach. 
Flambeau, s. m. a flambeau. 
Flamme, s.f. flame. 
Flanc, 5. m. side. 
Flatter, v. a. to flatter, please, 

caress. 
Flatteur, se, a. s. flattering, 

flatterer. 
Fleche, s.f. arrow. 
Fletiir, v. to blemish, brand, 

wither. 
Fleur, s. f a flower, blossom, 

bloom. 
Fleuri, a. flowery. 
Fleurir, v. n. to blossom, flourish. 
Fleuve, s. m. a large river. 
Flocon, s. m. flake. 



376 



VOCABULARY. 



Flore, Flore. 

Florence, Florence. 

Florentine, Florentine. 

Flot, s. m. a wave, tide, clot. 

Flotter, v. n. to float. 

Foi, s.f. faith, evidence, fealty. 

Fois, s.f time. 

Folie, s.f folly. 

Follementjrtrftf. madly, foolishly. 

Fond, s. m. bottom, fund. 

Fondamental, e. a. fundamen- 
tal. 

Fondement, s. m. foundation, 
cause. 

Fonds, s. m. soil, stock. 

Fontange, s.f a top-knot 

Fontenelle, Fontenelle. 

Force, s. f strength, force, pow- 
er, energy. 

Forcer nenr, adv. forcibly. 

Forcene, e. a. mad, madman. 

Forcer, v. a. to force. 

Foret, s.f a forest. 

Forger, v. a. to forge, form. 

Formation, s.f. formation. 

Forme, s.f form, shape. 

Former, v. a. to form. 

Fort, e. a. strong, stout, hard. 

Fort, adv. very, very much, hard. 

Fortement, adv. strongly, stout- 
ly, [en. 

Fortifier, v. a. to fort if y, strength- 

Fortune, s. f. fortune. 

Fou, Fol, le. or. mad. — , 5. m. a 
fool, madman. 

Fou el re, s.f a thunder-bolt. 

Foudroyanr, e. a. thundering, 
dreadful. 

Foudroyer, v. a. to thunder- 
strike. 

Fouetter, v. a. to lash. 

Fougueitx, se. a. fiery, unruly, 
impetuous. 



Fouille, s.f. trenches. 

Foule, s.f crowd, throng. 

Fouler, v. a. to tread, trample 
on, oppress. 

Four, s. m. oven. 

Fournir,^. a. to furnish, supply. 

(se) Fourrer, v. r. to intrude 
one's self 

Foyer, s. m. a hearth. 

Fragile, a. frail, brittle. 

Fragi I ite, s. f fragility, frailty. 

Frais, Fraiche, a. cool, fresh. 

Franoais, French. 

France, France. 

Franchir, v. a. to leap over. 

Franchise, s.f frankness. 

Frappant, e. a. striking. 

Frapper, v. a. to strike, smite. 

Fraternel, le. a. brotherly. 

Fraude, s.f. fraud. 

Frayer, v. n. to open, show. 

Frimas, s. m. rime, hoarfrost. 

Frissonner, v. n. to shiver, trem- 
ble. 

Frivole, a. frivolous, vain, tri- 
fiing. 

Froid, s. m. cold, coldness. 

Froidement, adv. coldly, 

Froncer, v. a. to gather. — le 
sourcil, to frown. 

Front, s. m. forehead. 

Frontiere, s. f frontier. 

Fruit, s. m. fruit, advantage. 

Fugitif, ve. a. s. fugitive. 

Fuir, v. a. to flee, run away. 

Fumee, s.f. smoke. 

Fumer, v. to smoke. 

Funehre, a. funeral. 

Funeste, a. fatal, unlucky. 

Fureur, s. J. fury, rage. 

Furieux,se. a. furious. 

Furtivement, adv. by stealth. 



VOCABULARY. 



377 



G. 

Gager, v. a. to bet, wager. 
Gagner, v. a. to get, gain, win. 
Gaiete, s.f gaiety, mirth. 
Gain, s. m. gain. 
Galant, e. a. genteel, clever. 
Galata, Galata. 
Galerie, s.f gallery, balcony. 
Galilee, Galilee. 
Gangrener, v. r. to gangrene. 
Garantir, v. a. to warrant,prctect. 
Gar^on, s. in. a boy. 
Garde r, v. a. to keep. 
Gardien, ne, s. a guardian. 
Garni r, v. a. to furnish, trim, 

adorn. 
Gauche, a. left. 
Gazon, s. m. green turf. 
Geant, e. s. giant. 
Gemir, v. n. to groan. 
Gener, v. a. to clog, constrain, 

cramp. 
General, s. m. a general, chief. 
General, e. a. general. 
Generation, s.f. generation. 
G&nereux, se. a. generous. 
Geneve, Geneva. 
Genie, s. m. genius. 
Genre, s. m. race, kind, style. 
Gens, s.f. pi. folks, people. 
Gent, s.f. nation, tribe, people. 
Geolier, s. m. gaoler. 
Gerrne, s. m. bud, germ. 
Geste, s. m. gesture, action. 
Gite, s. m. lodging. 
Giton, Giton. 

Glacer, v. a. to freeze, chill. 
Glaive, 5. m. a sword, glaive. 
Glisser, v. n. to slip, slide, glide. 
Globe, 5. m. a globe, the world. 
Gloire, 5. /. glory. 
Glorieux, se. a. glorious. 

32* 



Gnide, Cnidus. 

Gondole, s.f. gondola. 

Gonfler, v. a. to swell, puff up. 

Gothique, a. Gothic. 

Gouffre, s. m. abyss, pit, gulf. 

Gout, s. m. taste, fancy. 

Gouter, v. a. to taste, approve, 
relish. 

Goutte, s.f. drop. 

Gouvernement, s. m. govern- 
ment. 

Gouverner, v. a. to govern, rule. 

Gracelies, pi. Gracchi. 

Grace, s.f Grace, favor, grace, 
pardon, thanks. 

Gracieux, se. a. kind, graceful. 

Grade, s. m. degree, grade. 

Gradin, s. m. a step. 

Grain, s. m, grain, berry. 

Grammatical, e. a. grammatical. 

Grand, e. a. great, large. 

Grandeur, s.f. greatness, honor. 

Grandir, s.f. to grow great or 
tall. 

Gran iti que, a. granite. 

Grappe, s.f. bunch, cluster. 

Gratitude, s.f. gratitude, grate- 
fulness. 

Grave, a. grave, serious. 

Graver, v. a. to grave, etch. 

Gravir, v. n. to clamber up. 

Gre, .5. m. accord, will. 

Grec, Greque, a. s. Greek. 

Grece, Greece. 

Grele, a. slim, lank. 
Griffe, s.f. a claw, clutch. 
Gritna£ant,part. grimacing, dis- 
sembling. 
Gronder, v. to growl, scold. 
Gros, se. a. big, large. 
Grossier, e. a. coarse, rough. 

rude. 
Grotte, s.f grotto. 



378 



VOCABULARY. 



Gueret, s. m. fallow ground. 
Guerir, v. a. to cure, heal. 
Guerre, 5./. war. 
Guerrier, e. a. martial. 
Guerrier, s. m. soldier. 
Guide, 5. m. guide, tutor. 
Guider, v. a. to guide, conduct. 
Guttural, e. a. guttural. 
Gymnase, s. m. college, gym- 
nasium* 



H. 

Habile, a. able, clever, skilful. 
Habilete, s.f. ability, skill. 
Habiilement, 5. m. attire, clothes. 
Habiller, v. a. to dress f clothe. 
Habit, 5. m. suit of clothes, garb, 

dress. 
Habitant, s. m. inhabitant. 
Habiter, v. a. to inhabit, live. 
Habitude, s.f habit. 
Haie, s. f hedge. 
Haine, s.f hatred, grudge. 
Hameau, s. m. a hamlet. 
Hardi, e. a. bold, impudent. 
Harmon ie, s.f harmony. 
Harmonieux, se. adv. harmoni- 
ous, melodious. 
Hater, v. a. to hasten. 
(se) Hater, v. r. to make haste. 
Haut, e. a. high. 
Haut, adv. high, aloud. 
Hautain, e. a. haughty, proud. 
He bien, well. 
Helas ! int. alas ! 
Hercule Farnese, Farnese Her- 
cules. 
Herisse, e. a. bristling, thick-set. 
Herisser, v. a. to bristle upon. 
Heritage, s. m. inheritance, es- 
tate. 



Henrique, a. heroic. 
Hero'isme, 5. m. heroism, 
Heros, s. m. a hero. 
Hetre, s. m. beech-tree. 
Heure, s.f. hour, time. 
Heureux, se, a. happy. 
Hibou, s. m. an owl. 
Hideux, se. a. hideous, ghastly, 
Hier, adv. yesterday. 
Hirondelle, s. f. a swalhw. 
Histoire, s.f. history, story. 
Historien, e. s. an historian. 
Historique, a. historical. 
Hiver, s. m. winter, old age. 
Hoi I an de, Holland. 
Holocauste, s. m. a burnt-offer- 
ing. 
Homrnage, s. m. homage. 
Homme, s. m. a man. 
Honnete, a. honest, civil, credit- 
able, decent. 
Honnetete, s.f virtue. 
Honneur, s. m. honor, credit. 
Honorer, v. a. to honor. 
Honte, s.f shame, modesty. 
Honteux, se. a. shameful, bash- 
ful. 
Horace, Horace. 

Horizon, s. m. horizon. 

Horreur, s.f horror, dread. 

Horrible, a. horrible, horrid. 

Hors, prep, out, except. 

Hote, s. m. guest. 

Humain, e. a. human. [men. 

Hu mains, s. m. pi. — mortals. 

Humanite, s. m. human nature. 

Humble, a. humble, lowly. 

Hurneur, s.f humor, moisture. 

Hymen, s. m. Hymen, wedlock. 

Hymne, s. a hymn. 

Hypocrisie, s.f. hypocrisy. 

Hysope, s.f. hyssop. 



VOCABULARY. 



379 



I. 

Ici, adv. here, hither. 

Ici bas, adv. here below. 

Idee, s.f. idea, notion. 

Idiome, s. ?n. dialect, idiom. 

ldole, s.f. an idol. 

Idumee, Idumea. [fa m y* 

Ignominie, 5./. ignominy, in- 

Ignorance, s.f. ignorance. 

Ignorant, e. a. s. ignorant. 

Ignorer, v. a. not to know. 

II, pr. he, there. 

Illegitime, a. illegal, illegiti- 
mate. 

II lustre, a. illustrious. 

Image, s.f. image. 

Imaginaire, a. imaginary. 

Imagination, s.f. imagination, 
fancy. 

Imaginer, v. a. to imagine. 

Iman, s. m. Imam, a mahome- 
tan priest. 

Imitatif, ve. a. imitative. 

Immense, a. immense, vast. 

Immensite, s.f. immensity, vast- 
ness. 

Immobile, a. immovable. 

Immodere, e. a. immoderate, 

Immoler, v. a. to sacrifice, im 
violate. 

Immonde, a. unclean, foul. 

Immortality, s.f. immortality. 

Immortel, le. a. immortal. 

Immuable, a. immutable. 

Impatient, e. a. impatient. 

Impenetrable, a. impenetrable. 

Imperceptible, a. imperceptible. 

Impetueux, se. a. impetuous. 

Important, e. a. important. 

Importer, v. n. to import. 

Importun, e. a. s. importunate, 
troublesome. 



Impossible, a. impossible. 

Imposture, s.f. imposture. 

Impression, s.f. impression. 

I m primer, v. a. to print. 

Improvisateur, trice, a. extem- 
pore. 

Imprudent, e. a. impru-deni. 

Impudence, s.f. impudence. 

Im puissant, e. a. impotent. 

Impulsion, s.f. impulsion. 

Impunement, adv. with impu- 
nity. 

Impur, e. a. impure. 

Inalterable, a. unalterable. 

In an i me, e. a. inanimate. 

Incendie, 5./. burning, combus- 
tion. [ful> 

Incertain, e. a. uncertain, doubt- 

Incessamment, adv.incessantly. 

In c liner, v. to incline, bend, bow 
down. 

Incomparablement, adv. admi- 
rably. 

Inconnu, e. a. s. unknown. 

Incrtdulite, s.f. incredulity, un- 
belief. 

Indestructible, a. indestructible. 

Indifference, s.f. indifference. 

Indigence, s.f. indigence, want. 

Indigent, e. a. indigent, poor. 

Indigne, a. unworthy. 

s'Indigner, v. r. to be filled with 
indignation, fret. 

lndiquer, v. a. to indicate. 

Indompte, e. not tamed, unruly. 

Industricux, se. a. industrious. 

InefTa^able, a. indelible. 

Illegal, e. a. unequal , uneven. 

In^galite, s.f inequality. 

Inepuisable, a. inexhaustible. 

Infaillible, a. infallible. 

Infame, a. infamous. 

Infamie, s.f. infamy. 



380 



VOCABULARY. 



Infntigable, a. indefatigable, 

Inferieur, e. a. inferior, lower. 

Infernal, e. a, infernal, hellish, 

Infini, e. a, infinite. 

Infirm ite, s.f. infirmity, sick- 
ness. 

Inflexion, s.f, inflexion. 

Influence, s.f, influence. 

I u forme, a. shapeless. 

Infortune, e, a. unlucky , unfor- 
tunate, 

Ingenieux, se. a. ingenious. 

Ingrat, e. a. ungrateful. 

Inimitable, a. inimitable. 

Iniquite, s.f. iniquity, injustice. 

Injurier, v. a, to abuse, revile. 

Injustement, adv. unjustly. 

Injustice, s.f. injustice, 

Inne, e. a, innate. 

Innocence, s.f. innocence. 

lnnombrable, a. innumerable. 

lnquiet, e. a. uneasy, restless. 

In quieter, v. a. to disturb, vex. 

Inquietude, s.f. disquiet, un- 
easiness. 

Inscription, ,9./. inscription. 

Inscrire, v. a. to inscribe. 

Insecte, s. m. an insect. 

Insigne, a. notable, signal. 

Insinuant,e. a. engaging, pleas- 
ing. 

Inspirer, v. a. to inspire, sug- 
gest. 

Instant, s. m. instant. 

Instinct, s. m. instinct. 

Instituer, v. a. to institute. 

Institution, s.f. institution. 

Instruction, s.f. instruction. 

Instruire, v. a. to instruct, in- 
form, [tool. 

Instrument, s. m. instrument, 

Insti, a l'insu, without the know- 
ledge. 



Insulter, v. a. to insult. 

Intelligence, 5. /. intelligence, 
understanding. 

Interessant, e. a. affecting. 

Lite ret, s. m. interest, profit. 

Interieur, e. a. s. interior,' in- 
ward. 

Interprete, s. interpreter. 

Interrompre, v. a. to interrupt. 

Interruption, s.f. interruption. 

Intervalle, s. m. interval, space. 

Intime, a. intimate. 

Intrepide, a. intrepid. 

Intrepid ite, s.f. intrepidity. 

In venter, v. a.to invent, contrive. 

Invincible, a. invincible. 

Inviter, v. a. to invite. 

Inusite, e. a. unusual, not used. 

Inutile, a. useless. 

Irrevocable, a. irrevocable. 

Irriter, v. a. to irritate, incense. 

s'lrriter, v. r. to grow fierce. 

Isole, e. insulated, lonely. 

Italie, Italy. 

Italien, ne. a. s. Italian. 

Ivresse, s. f. drunkenness. 

I v rogue, a. s. a drunkard. 



Jadis, adv. of old, in old times. 
Jalousie, s.f. jealousy. 
Jaloux, se. a. jealous. 
Jamais, adv. never, ever. 
Jam be, s.f. leg. 
Janissaire, s. m. a janissary. 
Japon, Japan. 
Jardin, s. m. garden. 
Jaune, a. s. m. yellow. 
Jaunir, v. a. to make yellow. 
Je, pr. I. 
Jeanne d'Arc, Joan of Arc. 



VOCABULARY. 



381 



Jerusalem, Jerusalem. 
Jesuite, s. m. a Jesuit. 
Jesus Christ, Jesus Christ. 
Jet, 5. m. cast, throw. 
Jeter, v. a. to throw, cast, utter. 
Jeu, s. m. game, sport, play. 
Jeune, a. young. 
Jeunesse, s.f youth, frolic. 
Joie, s.f.joy, delight. 
Jo i nd re, v. n. to join. 
Jointure, s.f. joints. 
Joli, e. a. pretty, genteel. 
Jouer, v. a. to play, act. 
Jouet, s. m. plaything, sport. 
Joueur, se. s. gamester, player. 
Joug, s. m. yoke, slavery. 
Jouir, v. n. to enjoy, possess. 
Jouissauce, s.f. enjoyment. 
Jour, s. m. day, light, day-light. 
Jourdain, Jordan. 
Joyeux, se. a. joyful, merry. 
Juge, s. m. a judge. [tence. 

Jugement, s. m. judgment, sen- 
Juger, v. a. to judge, try. 
Jules, family of the Julii. 
Jupiter, s. m. Jupiter. 
Jurer, v. to swear. 
Jurisconsulte, s. m. a lawyer. 
Jus, s. m. juice. 
Jusque, Jusques, prep, to, as 

far as, until. 
Jusqu'a, Juqu'au, even to. 
Jusqu'ici, hitherto. 
Juste, a. s.m. just, just man. 
Juste, adv. right, exactly. 
Justesse, s.f justness. 
Justice, s.f. justice. 



La, art. the. 
La, pr. her, it. 
La, adv. there. 



La-dessus, adv. upon that, up 
there. 

Labeur, s. m. labor, work. 

La bo u re ur, s. m. ploughman. 

Lac, s. m. a lake. 

Lacedemone, Lacedemon. 

Lacedemonien, Lacedemonian. 

Lache, a. loose,faint, cowardly. 

Lache, 5. m. a poltroon. 

Laisser, v. a. to leave, let. 

Lait, 5. m. milk. 

Latnbeau, s. m. a rag, a shred. 

Lamoignon, Lamoignon. 

Lance, s.f a lance, spear. 

Lampe, s.f. lamp. 

Langage, s.f. language,tongue. 

Langue, s.f. tongue, language. 

Languir, v. n. to languish. 

Languissant, e. a. languishing, 
weak, faint. 

Lanterne, s.f. lantern. 

Laquai^, s. m. a lackey , footman. 

Laquelie, pr.f which. 

Large, a. large, broad. 

Large, s. m. breadth. 

Larme, s.f. a tear. 

Lasser, v. a. to lire, weary. 

Laurier, s. m. laurel, bay. 

Le, art. m. the. 

Le, pr. him, it, so. 

Lecher, v. a. to tick. 

Lecon, s.f lecture, lesson. 

Lecteur, s. m.a reader. 

Lecture, s.f. reading. 

Leger, e. a. light, nimble, tri- 
fling, [bly. 

Legerement, adv. lightly, mm* 

Lt'gion, s.f legion. [giver. 

Legislator, s.m. legislator, law- 

Lr»islation, 5./. legislation. 

Legumes, pi. greens, roots. 

Lend e i nam, s. m. the next day, 
morrow. 



382 



VOCABULARY. 



Lent, e. slow, dull. 

Lenteur, s.f. slowness, dullness. 

Leon id as, Leonidas. 

Lequel, pr. m. which, who, that. 

Les, art. pi. fy pr. the, them. 

Lettre, s. f letter, epistle. 
Lettves, pi. literature. 

Levant, s. m. the east, the Le- 
vant. 

Lever, v. to lift up. 

(se) Lever, v. r. to rise, arise. 

Leur, pr, their, them. 

Liaison, s.f, connexion, 

Liant, e. a, affable, mild. 

Liberal, e. a, liberal, 

Liberte, s.f, liberty, freedom, 

Libert in, e. a, licentious, lewd. 

Libertin, e. s, a lewd person, lib- 
ertine. 

Libre, a. free, easy, open. 

Libre men t, adv. freely. 

Lie, part, connected. 

Lien, s. m. tie, band. 

Lier, v. a. to bind, tie, unite. 

Lierre, s. m. ivy. 

Lieu, s. m. place, room. 

Lieue, s.f. a league, three miles* 

Ligne, s.f. line, race. 

Li las, s. m. lilac. 

Limiter, v. a. to limit. 

Li mites, s.f. pi. limits, bounds. 

Limon, s. m. mud. 

Lire, v. a. to read. 

Lit, s. m. a bed. 

Literature, s.f literature. 

Livre, s. m. a book. 

Livrer, v. a. to deliver up. 

Loger, v. to lodge. 

Logis, s. m. dwelling. 

Loi, s. f. law. 

Loin, adv. far, far off. 

Loin de, far from. 

Lointain, e. a. remote, far. 



Loisir, s. m. leisure. 

Long, Longue, a. long, great. 

Long-temps, adv. a long while. 

Longueur, 5./. length. 

Lors, adv. then. 

Lorsque, c. when. 

Louange, s.f praise. 

Louche, a. squint-eyed, ambig- 
uous. 

Louer, v. n. to praise. 

Lours, s. m. Lewis, louis. 

Lourd, e. a. heavy, dull. 

Lubin, Lubin. 

Lucifer, s. m. Lucifer. 

Lucius Cornelius, Lucius Cor- 
nelius. 

Lugubre, a. doleful, sad. 

Lui, pr. him, her, to him, to her. 
Lui-meme, himself. 

Luire, v.n. to glitter, shine. 

Lumiere, s.f. light. 

Luminaire,5.wi. luminary, light. 

Lutter, v. n. to wrestle, strug- 
gle. 

Luxe, s. m. luxury. 

Lyre, s.f. a lyre, harp. 



M. 

Ma, pr.f. my, mine. 

Madame, s.f. madam. 

Mademoiselle, s.f miss. 

Magie, s.f. magic, black-art, 

Magister, s, m. country school- 
master, pedant, 

Magistrat, s. m. a magistrate. 

Magnificence, s.f. sumptuous- 
ness, slate. 

Magnifique, a. magnificent. 

Majeste, s.f majesty. 

Majestueux, se. a. majestic. 

Maigre, a. lean, thin. 



VOCABULARY. 



383 



Main, s.f. hand. 

Maim, e. a. many. 

Maintenant, adv. now. 

Maintenir, v. to maintain. 

Maintien, s. m. deportment. 

Mais, c. but. 

Maison, s. f. house, family. 

Maitre, s. m. a master. 

Maitresse, s.f. mistress. 

Mai, 5. m. evil, ill, harm, hurt. 

Mai, adv. badly, ill. 

Malade, a. s. sick, patient. 

Maladie, s.f sickness, disease. 

Male, a. manly. 

Malgre, prep, in spite of, not- 
withstanding. 

Malheur, s. m. misfortune. 

Malheureux, se. a. unhappy. 

Malheureux, s.m. an unfortu- 
nate. 

Malin, igne, a. mischievous. 

Manger, v. a. to eat. 

Manie, s.f. madness. 

Maniere, s. f manner, way, 
style. 

(se) Man i fester, v. r. to show 
one's self. 

Manque, s. m. want, lack. — 
Manque de, for want of. 

Manquer, v. a. to fail, want. 

Manteau, s. m. a cloak. 

Marbre, s. m. marble. 

Marchand, s. m. a merchant. 

Marc he, s.f. march, step. 

Marche, s. m. market. 

Marcher, v. n. to walk, march, 
go. 

Marie, Mary. 

Marier, v. a. to marry. 

Marin ier, s.m. mariner, seaman. 

Marius, Marius. 

Marquer, v. a. to mark, show. 

Marteau, s. m. hammer. 



Martyr, e. s. a martyr. 

Masque, s. m. a mask. 

Masque, e. a. masked, counter- 
feit, dissembling. 

Masure, s.f. the ruins of a house, 
a paltry house. 

Mat, s. m. a mast. 

Matiere, s.f. matter. 

Matin, s. m. adv. — morning. 

Maud ire, v. a. to curse. 

Maud it, e. a. cursed. 

Maure, Moor. 

Mauresque, Moorish. 

Mauvais, e. a. bad, evil, ill. 

Manx, evils, pi. q/*Mal. 

Maxime, s.f. maxim. 

Me, pr. me, to me. 

Mechancete, s.f. wickedness. 

Mechant, e. a. wicked, bad. 

Mecontent, e. a. dissatisfied. 

Mediocrement, adv. indifferent- 
ly, so so, moderately. 

Meditation, s.f meditation. 

Med iter, v. a. to meditate, think. 

Mt-duse, Medusa. 

Meilleur, e. a. better. 

Melange, s. m. mixture. 

Melodie, s.f. melody. 

Melodieux, se. a. melodious. 

Membre, s. m. member. 

Me me, a. same, self, itself. 

Me me, adv. even. 

Memoire, s.f. memory. 

Memnon, Memnon. 

Memphis, Memphis. 

Menacer, v. a. to threaten. 

Menager, v. a. to conduct. 

Mendoze, Mendoza. 

Mener, v. a. to lead, carry. 

Mensonge, s. m. lie. 

Menteur, se. a. s. lying, liar. 

Mentir, v. n. to lie. 

Menton, v. n. the chin. 



384 



VOCABULARY. 



Mepris, s. m. contempt, scorn. 
Mepriser, v. a. to despise. 
Mer, s.f. the sea. 
Merci, s. f. mercy, pity, thanks. 
Mere, s.f. mother. 
Merite, s. m. merit, desert, worth. 
Mer iter, v. a. to deserve. 
Merveiiie, s.f. wonder, marvel. 
Merveilleux, se. a. wonderful. 
Mes, pi. my. 

Mesure, s.f. measure. — a Me- 
sure, adv. in proportion. 
Mesurer, v. a. to measure. 
Metal, s. m. metal. 
Metaphore, s.f. metaphor. 
Mete II us, Metellus. 
Metier, s. m. trade. 
Mettre, v. a. to put, set. 
Meurtrier, e. a. murderous. 
Meurtriere, s.f a loop-hole. 
Meute, s.f. pack (of hounds.) 
Mezence, Mezentius. 
Michel- Ange, Michael Angelo. 
Midi, s. m. noon, south. 
Mieux, adv. better, best. 
Mi lice, s.f. militia, soldiery. 
Milieu, s. m. middle, midst. 
Militaire, a. s. military. 
Mille, or Mil, s. m. thousand. 
Millie r, s. m. a thousand. 
Million, s. m. a million. 
Mine, s.f a mien, show, looks. 
Ministere, s. m. ministry. 
M nistre, s. m. minister. 
Minute, s.f. minute. 
Miracle, s. m. miracle, ivonder. 
Muaculeux, se. a. miraculous. 
Miserable, a. miserable. 
Misere, s.f. misery, calamity. 
Mocha, Mocha. 
Mode, s.f. mode. 
Modele, s. m. model. 
Moderation, s.f. moderation. 



Mod ere, e. a. moderate, abated. 

Moderer, v. a. to moderate. 

Moderne, a. modern. 

Modernes, s. m. pi. — the mod- 
erns. 

Modeste, a. modest. 

Modestie, s.f. modesty. 

Modifier, v. a. to modify. 

Moeurs, s.f. pi. manners, ways. 

Moi, pr. me, I. — Moi-m6me, 
myself. 

Moi n d re, a. less, least. 

Moins, adv. less. 

Moins, s. m. the least. 

Mois, s. m. a month. 

Moissonner, v. a. to reap. 

Moitie, s.f half, moiety. 

Molecule, s. f. particle. 

Mollesse, s.f. softness. 

Moment, s. m. moment, minute. 

Mon, pr. my. 

Monarchic, s.f. a monarchy. 

Monarque, s. m. monarch. 

Monde, s. in. the ivorld, com- 
pany. 

Monnaie, s.f. money. 

Monotone, a. monotonous. 

Monsieur, s. m. Sir, master. 

Monstre, s. m. a monster. 

Montagne, s.f. mountain, hill. 

Monter, v. n. to go or come up, 
gel up. 

Montesquieu, Montesquieu. 

Montrer, v. a. to show. 

Monument, s. m. a monument. 

(se) Moquer de, v. r. to laugh 
at, jeer. 

Moral, e. a. moral. 

Morale, s.f morality. 

Morhleu, i. zounds ! 

Murine, s.f haughty surly look. 

Mort, s.f. death, decease. 

Mort, e. a. dead, deceased. 



VOCABULARY. 



385 



Mort, e. s. a dead body. 

Mortel, le. a. s. mortal. 

Mot, s. m. word. 

Motif, s. m. a motive, aim. 

Mouche, s.f. a fly. 

Moucher, v. a. to blow one's 
nose. 

Moucheron, s. m. gnat. 

Mouchoir, s. m. handkerchief. 

Moule, 5. m. a mould. 

Mourant, e. a. dying. 

Mourir, v. n. to die. 

Mousquet, s. m. musket. 

Moustache, s. f. whiskers. 

Mouvement, s. m. motion, move- 
ment. 

Mouvoir, v. a. to move. 

Moyen, s. m. means. 

Muet, te. a. s. dumb, mute. 

Mugissement, 5. m. lowing, 
roaring. 

Multiplier, v. a. to multiply. 

Multitude, s.f. multitude. 

Mur, s. m. a wall. 

Muraille, s.f a wall. 

Murmure, 5. m. murmur. 

Murmurer, v. n. to murmur. 

Museau,- s. m. muzzle, snout, 
nose. 

Musique, s.f. music. 

Mutuel, le. a. mutual. 

Mutuellement, adv. mutually. 

Mystere, 5. m. a mystery. 

Mysterieux, se. a. mysterious. 



N. 

Naissance, s. f birth, nativity. 
Naissant, e. a. nascent, rising. 
Naitre, v. n. to be born, arise, 

spring, grow. 
Naples, jVaples. 

33 



Nappe, s.f. table-cloth. 

Narratif, ve. a. narrative. 

Naseau, s. m. nostril. 

Nation, 5./. nation. 

Naturaliste, s. m. a naturalist. 

Nature, s.f. nature. 

Naturel, le. a. natural, native. 

Naturellement, adv. naturally. 

Naufrage, 5. m. shipwreck. 

Navire, s. m. a ship, vessel, sail. 

Nautonier, s. m. a mariner, a 
sailor. 

Ne, adv. not, no. 

Ne, e. a. born. 

Neanmoins, c. nevertheless. 

Neant, 5. m. nothingness. 

Necessaire, a. necessary. 

Necessairement, adv. necessa- 
rily* 

Necessite, s.f necessity. 

Nectar, s. m. nectar. 

Neige, s.f snow. 

Neveu, s. m. a nephew. 

Neveux, pi. posterity, 

Neuf, ve. a. new. 

Neuvieme, a. s. ninth. 

Ni, c. neither, nor. 

Nid, s. m. a nest. 

Niece, s.f a niece. 

Nier, v. a. to deny. 

Nil, Mle. 

Noble, a. s. tioble. 

Noblesse, s.f nobility. 

Noce, Noces, s. f marriage, 
nuptials. 

Noir, e. a. blacky base, dismal. 

Noiratre, a. blackish. 

Norn, 5. 771. name. fame. 

Notnbre, s. m. number. 

Nombreux, se. a. numerous. 

Nommer, v. a. to name. 

Noo, adv. no, not. 

Nopal, s. nopal (Indian fig). 



366 



VOCABULARY. 



Nord, s. m. North. 

Nos, pr. pi. our. 

Notre, pr. our. 

Nourrir, v. a. to nourish, feed. 

Nous, pr. we, us, to us. 

Nous-mernes, pr. ourselves. 

Nouveau, Nouvel, le. a. new. 

Nouveau te, s.f. novelty. 

Nouvelle, s.f. news. 

Noyer, v. a. to drown. 

Nu, Nue, a. naked, plain. — A 1 

nu, adv. nakedly, clearly. 
Nuage, s. m. a cloud, mist. 
Nuance, s.f. shadowing, shade. 
Nue, s.f a cloud, sky. 
Nuire, v. n. to hurt, annoy. 
Nuit, s.f. night. 
Nu I, le. a. void, none, not one, no. 
Numa, Numa. 
Nu-pieds, a. hare-footed. 
Nuptial, e. a. nuptial, bridal. 



O. 

O ! i. ah ! 

Obeissance, s.f obedience. 

Objet, s. m. object. 

Obliger, v. a. to oblige, bind. 

Oblique, a. oblique, indirect. 

Obscur, e. a. dark. 

Obscurcir, v. a. to darken, dim. 

Obscurite, s.f obscurity. 

Observateur, a. observing. 

Observateur, rice, s. observer. 

Observer, v. a. to observe, watch. 

Obstine, a. s. stubborn, obsti- 
nate. 

Obtenir, v. a. to obtain, get. 

Occasion, s.f. occasion, oppor- 
tunity. 

Occuper, v. a. to occupy, em- 
ploy, possess, hold. 



s'Occuper, v. r. to busy one's 
self 

Ocean, s. m. the ocean. 

Ode, s.f an ode. 

Odieux, se. a. odious, heinous. 

Odorat, s: m. smell. 

Odoriferant, e. a. odoriferous, 
sweet. 

Oeil, s. m. eye. 

Oeuvre, s.f. work. 

OfTenser, v. a. to offend, injure. 

Offrir, v. a. to offer. 

Ob ! i. oh ! 

Oiseau, s. m. a bird. 

Olympie, Olympus. 

Olym pique, a. Olympic. 

Ombrageux, se. a. suspicious, 
jealous. 

Ombre, s. f shade, shadow, 
ghost. 

On, pr. they, one, somebody, 
people, we. 

Onction, s.f. unction. 

Onde, s.f a wave, water. 

Ondoyant, e. a. undulating. 

Onze, a. s. m. eleven. 

Operer, v. a. to operate, work. 

Opinion, s.f opinion, belief 

Oppose, s. m. opposite. 

Op poser, v. a. to oppose. 

Oppression, s. f oppression. 

Opprobre, s. m. disgrace, re- 
proach. 

Orage, s. m. a storm. 

Oraison, s.f. speech, oration. 

Oranger, s. m. an orange-tree. 

Orateur, s.m. an orator. 

Ordinaire, a. ordinary. 

Ordfre, s. in. order. 

Oreille, s.f. the ear. 

Orjjann, s.f. organ. 

Organiqne, a. organic. 

Organiser, v. a. to organize. 



VOCABULARY. 



387 



Orgueil, s. m. pride, loftiness. 

Orient, 5. m. east. 

Oriental, e. a. eastern, oriental. 

Origine, s.f. origin. 

Ornement, s. m. ornament. 

Orner, v. a. to adorn, embellish. 

Oser, v. n. to dare. 

Ostentation, s.f. ostentation. 

Oter, v. a. to take away, remove. 

Ou, c. or, either, else. 

Ou, adv. where, whither, in 
which, to which. 

Oubli, s. m. forgetfulness, oh- 
livion. 

Oublier, v. or. to forget. 

s'Oublier, v. r. to forget one's 
self. 

Oui, adv. yes. 

Outrage, s. m. outrage, injury. 

Outrager, v. a. to affront. 

Outre, adv. farther. 

Ouvrage, s. m. work, workman- 
ship. 

Ouvrier, s. m. artificer. 

Quvrir, v. to open, begin. 



P. 

Pactole, Pactolus. 

Page, s.f. page. 

Pain, s. m. bread, loaf 

Paix, s.f peace. 

Palais, s. m. palace. 

Pale, a. pale, wan. 

Palir, v. a. to grow pale. 

Palmier, s. m. palm-tree, date- 
tree. 

Palpiter, v. n. to palpitate, pant. 

Pan, s. m. pane, front, sheet, 
layer. 

Panache, s. m. tuft of feathers. 

Panathenees, Panathenma. 



Panthere, 5. f. a panther. 

Pantoufle, s.f. a slipper. 

Y&v,prep. by, on, through. 

Paraitre, v. a. to appear. 

Parasol, s. m. an umbrella. 

Para vent, s. m. folding screen. 

Parceque, c. because. 

Parcourir, v. a. to travel over, 
run over. 

Pardessus, adv. over and above. 
— , prep, over, higher, beyond. 

Pardonner, v. a. to pardon, for- 
give. 

Pareil, le. a. s. like, such. 

Parent, s. m. relation, kinsman. 

Parens, s. m. pi. parents, pa- 
rentage. 

Parer, v. a. to deck. 

Paresse, s.f. sloth, laziness. 

Parfum, s. m. perfume. 

Parfumer, v. a. to perfume. 

Pari, s. m. a wager, bet. 

Parjure, s. m. perjury. 

Parler, v. n. to speak, talk. 

(se) Parler. v. r. to converse* 

Parole, s.f. word. 

Parmi, prep, among, amidst, 

Parque, s.f. destiny, fate, Fate. 

Part, s. f. part, share. Nulle 
part, no where. 

Partage, s. m. a share. 

Part a ger, v. a. to share, divide. 

Parti, s. m. party, way. 

Particule, s.f. particle. 

Particulier, s. m. private man. 

Partie, s.f. part. [spring. 

Partir, v. n. to proceed, start, 

Partout, adv. every where. 

Parvenir, v. a. to arrive, come to, 
attain, succeed. 

Pas, s. m. step, pace, precedence. 
— , adv. no, not. 

Pascal, e. a. paschal. 



388 



VOCABULARY. 



Pascal, Pascal. 

Passant, s.m. a passenger, trav- 
eller. 

Passe, a. past, faded. — , 5. m. 
time past, things past. 

Passer, v. to pass. 

Passion, s.f. passion. 

Pastoral, e. a. pastoral, rural. 

Patricien, ne. a. s. patrician. 

Patrie, s.f. native country. 

Patriotisme, s. m. patriotism. 

Paturage, s. m. pasturage. 

Pature, s.f provender, food. 

Pave, s. m. pavement. 

Pauvre, a. poor, beggar. 

Pauvret, te. a. poor. 

Pauvrete, s.f. poverty. 

Payen, ne. a. s. pagan. 

Payer, v. a. to pay. 

Pays, s. m. country. 

Paysage, s. m. landscape. 

Pec he, s.f. a sin. 

Pedant, e. s. a pedant. 

Peindre, v. a. to paint f describe. 

Peiae, s. f. pain, penalty, pains, 

trouble. 

(a) Peine, adv. hardly. 

Peinture, s,f. painting, picture. 

Penchant, s. m. declivity \ incli- 
nation. — , e. a. declining. 

Pendant, pr. during. — que, adv. 
whilst. 

Penetrant, e. a. penetrating. 

Pemtrer, v. a. to penetrate. 

Pen i hie, a. laborious. 

Peniblement, adv. painfully. 

Pens/e, s.f thought, sketch. 

Penser, v. to think, come near. 
— , s. m. thought. 

Pensif, ve. a. pensive. 

Pension, s.f. pension. 

Pente, s.f declivity. 

Percant, e, a. piercing, acute. 



Perceptible, a. perceptible. 

Perce r, v. a. to pierce, break 
through. 

Perdre, v. a. to lose, ruin. 

(se) Perdre, v. r. to lose one's 
self. 

Perdu, e. a. lost. 

Pere, s. m. father. 

Perfection, s. f. perfection. 

Perfectionner, v. a. to perfect. 

Peril, s. m. danger, peril. 

Periodique, a. periodical. 

Perir, v. n. to perish. 

Permanent, e. a. lasting. 

Permettre, v. a. to permit, let, 
allow. 

Perpetuellement, adv. perpetu- 
ally. 

Perpetuer, v. a. to perpetuate. 

Persan, ne. a. Persian. 

Perse, Persian. 

Personnage, s. m. person, part. 

Person ne, s.f. a person. — , pr. 
nobody, any one. 

Personnel, lfi- a nfir.QnnrJ Mn. 

FersonneWemeiU, adv. personal- 
Persuader, v. a. to persuade, 

satisfy, advise. 
Persuasif, ve. a. persuasive. 
Perte, s.f. loss. 
Pesant, e. a. heavy, dull. 
Peser, v. n. to weigh. — , v. a. to 

to bore, tire. 
Peste, s.f. the plague. 
Petillant, e. a. sparkling. 
Petiller, v. n. to crackle, sparkle. 
Petit, e, a. little, small, petty. 
Petit-en fan t, s. m. grandson. 
Petitesse, s.f. littleness. 
Peu, adv. little, few. 
(un) Peu, s. m. a little, some. 
Peiua-peu, adv. by degrees. 
Peu pie, s. m. people, nation* 



VOCABULARY. 



389 



Peuplier, s. m. popular. 
Pen r, s. f fear, dread, fright 

Peut-etre, adv. perhaps. 
Phalange, s.f phalanx. 

Phebus, s. m. the sun, Phozbus. 

Phedon, Phazdo. 

Phenomene, s. m. phenomenon. 

Phidias, Phidias. 

Philosophe, s. m. philosopher. 

Philosopher, v. n. to philoso- 
phize. 

Philosophie, s.f. philosophy. 

Phrase, s.f phrase , expression. 

Pied, Pie, s. m.foot. — a pied, on 
foot. 

Piece, s.f. apiece. 

Pierre, s.f a stone. 

Piete, s. f piety, godliness. 

Pieux, se, a. pious, godly. - 

Pilier, s. m. a pillar, post. 

Pinceau, s. m. pencil, brush. 

Pincettes, pi. tongs. 

Pipe, s.f. a pipe. 

Piquant, e. a. keen, sharp. 

Pistole, s.f. a pistole. 

Pitie, s.f. pity, compassion. 

Pittoresque, a. picturesque. 

Place, s.f. place, room. 

Placer, v. a. to place. 

Plaie, s.f. a wound. 

Plaindre, v. a. to pity. 

(se) Plaindre, v. r. to complain. 

Plaine, s.f. a plain. 

Plainte, s. complaint, lamenta' 
Hon. 

Plain tif, ve. a. plaintive, doleful. 

Plaire, v.n. to please. 

(se) Plaire, v. r. to love, delight. 

Plaisant, e. a. pleasing, pleas- 
ant. 

Plaisir, 5. m. pleasure, joy. 

Plan, s. m. plan, scheme. 

Plant, s. m. a plant. 

33* 



Plat, e. a. fat. 
P la ton, Plato. 
Plein, e. a. full. 
PJeurer, v. to weep, cry. 
Pleurs, s. m. pi. tears. 
Pli, s. m. a plait, fold. 

(se) Plier, v. r. to bend, conform. 

Pline, Pliny. 

Plonger, v. a. to immerse. 

Pluie, s.f. rain. 

Plumage, s. m. feathers, plum- 
age. 

Plume, s.f pen. 

Plus, adv. more, most, no mere. 

Plus, adv. s. m. more. 

(le) Plus, s. the most. 

(la) PI u part, s. the most, the 
greatest part. 

Plusieurs, a. pi. many. 

Pi ii tot, adv. sooner, rather. 

Poesie, s.f. poetry, poesy. 

Poete, s. a poet, poetess. 

Poetique, a. poetical. 

Poids, s.m. load, scales, weights. 

Poignard, s. m. dagger, pon- 
iard. 

Poignet, s. m. wrist. 

Point, adv. no, not, none. 

Point, s. m. point. 

Pointe, s. f point. 

Poison, s. m. poison. 

Politesse, s.f. politeness. 

Politique, a. political, artful. 

— , s. f politics, policy. 

Poltronnerie, s.f. cowardice. 

Ponipe, s.f. pomp. 

Pontife, s. m. a pontiff. 

Pontifical, e. a. pontifecd. 

Porte, s.f. a door, a gate. 

Portee, s.f. reach. 

Porter, v. a. to carry, bcar y ivear+ 
induce. 

Porte ur, s. m. a porter. 



390 



VOCABULARY, 



Portion, s.f. part, portion. 
Portrait, 5. m. portrait, picture. 
Position, s.f. position, situa- 
tion. 
Posseder, v. a. to possess. 
Possible, a. s. m. possible. 
Posterite, s. f posterity, off- 
spring. 
Police, s.m. inch. 
Poudre, s.f. dust. 
Poulet, s. m. a chick. 
Pouls, s. m. pulse. 
Pour, prep. for, in order, to. 
Pour pre, s. m. purple. 
Pourquoi, adv. c. why? 
Poursuite, s.f pursuit. 
Poursuivre, v. a. to pursue. 
Pourtant, c. however, notwith- 
standing. 
Pourvoir, v. to provide. [ten 
Pousser, v. to push, thrust, ut- 
Poussiere, s.f. dust. 
Pouvoir, v. to be able, may, can. 
Pouvoir, s. m. power, interest. 
Pratique, s. f practice. 
Pratiquer, v. n. to practise. 
Pre, s. m. a meadow. [first. 

Preceder, v. r. to precede, go 
Precher, v. to preach. 
Precipite, e. a. precipitate. 
Precipiter, v. a. to precipitate. 
Precis, e. a. precise. 
Preeisement r adv. precisely. 
Prejuge, s. m. prepossession, 

prejudice. 
Premier, e. a. first. 
Prendre, v. a. to take, find. 
(se) Prendre, v.r. to begin,setto. 
Preparer, v. a. to prepare. 
Pres, adv. near, hard by, by, be- 
side. 
Prescrire, v. n. to prescribe. 
Presence, s.f. presence. 



Present, e. a. present, ready. 
Present, s. m. a gift, present. 
Presenter, v. a. to present, of- 
fer. 
President, s. m. president, 
speaker. 

Presider, v. a. to preside. 

Presomptueux, se. a. presump- 
tuous. 

Presque, adv. almost. 

Presser, v. a. to press, urge, 
hasten. 

Prestige, s. m. prestige, illusion. 

Pret, e. a. ready, at hand. 

Pretendre, v. to pretend, expect, 
aspire at, design. 

Pretend u, e. a. supposed. 

Pretention, s.f pretention. 

Preter, v. r. to lend. 

Pretexte, s.f. pretext, pretence. 

Prevenir, v. a. to prevent, an- 
ticipate. 

Prevention, s.f prepossession. 

Prevenu, adj. prepossessed. 

Prevoir, v. a. to foresee. 

Frier, v. a. to pray, beg. 

Priere, s. m. pray er, desire. 

Primitif, ve. a. primitive. 

Prince, s. m. a prince. 

Principal, e. a. principal, chief. 

Principe, s. m. principle. 

Printemps, s. m. the spring. 

Prise^s./. scuffle. 

Prison, s.f a prison, a gaol. 

Prison nier, e. a. s. prisoner. 

Prive, e. a. private. 

Priver, v. a. to deprive. 

Privilegie, e. a. privileged. 

Prix, s. m. price, rate, compari- 
son, value, reward. 

Proces, s. m. law-suit. 

Procliain, e. a. next. 

Froche, prep, near, close to. 



VOCABULARY. 



391 



Proclamer, v. a. to proclaim. 

Procurer, v. a. to procure, get 

Prodige, s. m. a prodigy. 

Prodigue, a. profuse, prodigal. 

Production, s. f. production, 
product. 

Prod u ire, v. a. to produce, yield, 
cause, show. 

(se) Prod u ire, v. r. to put one's 
self forward. [ing* 

Profession, s.f profession, call- 

Profiter, v. n. to improve, profit, 
take advantage. 

Profond, e. a. deep, profound. 

Pro fon de men t, adv. deep, deeply. 

Profondeur, s.f. depth. 

Profusion, s.f profusion. 

Proie, s.f. prey, booty. 

Projet, s. m. project, design. 

Prolonger, v. a. to prolong. 

Promenade, s.f walk, walking. 

Prom en er, v. a. to walk. 

(se) Promener, v. r. to walk. 

Promettre, v. a. to promise. 

Prompt, e. a. quick, sudden, 
active. 

Promptement, adv. quickly. 

Prononcer, v. a. to pronounce, 
deliver. 

Propager, v. n. to propagate. 

Prophete, s. m. a prophet. 

Propice, a. propitious. 

Proportion, s.f proportion. 

Propos, s. m. discourse, propo- 
sal, design, subject. A pro- 
pos, adv. suitably, now 1 
think of it. [intend. 

(se) Proposer, v. r. to propose, 

Propre, a. proper, own, fit. 

Prose, s. f prose. 

Protection, s. f protection. 

Prc*ee, Proteus. 

Pro rer, v. a. to protect, defend. 



Protester, v. a. to protest, affirm. 
Prototype, s. m. prototype, first 

model. 
Prouver, v. a. to prove. 
Psalmodie, s.f. psalmody. 
Public, que. a. public, common. 
Public, s. m. the public. 
Pudeur, s.f modesty. 
Puis, adv. then, afterwards. 
Puisque, c. since. 
Puissamment, adv. mightily. 
Puissance, s.f. power, might. 
Puissant, e. a. powerful. 
Puits, s. m. a well. 
Punir, v.a.to punish. 
Punition, s.f punishment. 
Pur, e. a. pure, clear. 
Purete, s.f. purity. 
Purpurin, e. a. purplish. 
Pyramide, s.f. pyramid. 



Q. 

Quai, s. m. quay. 
Qualite, s.f. quality, title. 
Quand, c. though, if 
— , adv. when. 
Quarante, a. forty. 
Quatre, a. four. 
Quatre- vingts, a. fourscore. 
Quatrieme, a. fourth. 
Que, pr. that, which, whom,what. 
Que, adv. but, that. 
Quel? Quelle? pr. what") 
Quel que, adv. however. 
Quelque, pr. some. — pi. a few. 
Quelquefois, adv. sometimes. 
Quelques-uns, a. some. 
Quelqu'un, pr. somebody, one. 
Question, s. f question, mat- 
ter. 
Queue, s.f tail. 



392 



VOCABULARY. 



Qui, pr. that, who, whom, which, 

whoever ' r what 
Quitter, v. n. to quit, leave, 
Quoi, pr. which, ivhat, that. 
Quoi ! i. what ! how now I 

R. 

Rabattre, v. a. to abate, hate. 

Race, s.f race, breed, kind. 

Raconter, v. a. to relate r tell. 

Radieux, se. a. radiant. 

Raffermir, v. a. to strengthen. 

Railler, v. a. to rally. 

Raillerie, 5./. bantering, jest. 

Raison, s.f. reason, sense, proof. 

Raison nahle, a. reasonable, ra- 
tional, right. 

Raison nement, 5. m. reasoning. 

Rallier, v. a. to rally. 

Ram as, s. m. collection. 

Rame, s. f. an oar. 

Rameau, s. m. a bough, branch. 

Ramener, v. a. to bring back. 

Ram per, v. n. to crawl, creep. 

Rang, s. m. rank. 

Ranimer, v. a. to animate, re- 
vive. 

Rapacile, s.f. rapacity, greedi- 
ness. 

Raphael, Raphael. 

Rapid e, a. rapid, swift. 

Rapidement, adv. swiftly. 

Rapidite, s.f. rapidity, swift- 
ness. 

Rappeller r v. a. to call back, re- 
call. 

Rapport, s. m. report, affinity, 
relation. 

Rapporter, v. a. to bring back, 
relate. 

Rapprocher, v. a. to draw near 
again. 



Rare, a. rare, uncommon, scarce. 

Ras, e. a. shaved close, smooth. 

Raser, v. a. to shave. 

Rassembler, v. a. to gather, col- 
lect. 

(se) Rassurer, v. r. to cheer up 
again y settle. 

Rat, 5. m. a rat. 

Ravir, v. n. to ravish, seize. 

Rayon, s. m. a ray. 

Rayon nan t, e. a. radiant. 

Rayon ner, v.n. to emit rays. 

Realite, s.f reality. 

Reaumur, Reaumur. 

Rebuter, v. a. to thrust away, 
repel. 

Recent, e. a. recent, fresh, new. 

Recevoir, v. a. to receive. 

Recherche, s.f inquiry. 

Rechercher, v. a. to seek again, 
make inquiry. 

Reciproque, a. reciprocal. 

Reclamer, v. a. to claim. 

Recommencer, v. a. to begin 
again. 

Recompense, s. f a reward. 

(en) Recompense, adv. in re- 
turn. 

Reconnaissance, s. f grati- 
tude. 

Reconnaitre, v. a. to acknow- 
ledge, observe, recognize. 

Reconstruire, v. a. to recon- 
struct. 

Recou rs, s. in, recourse. 

Recouvrir, v. a. to cover again. 

Recueilli, part, collected. 

Recueillir, v. a. to gather, sum 
up. 

Reculer, v. a. to fall back, recoil, 

Redemander, v. a. to ask again, 
require. 

Redempteur, a. redeeming. 



VOCABULARY. 



393 



Redoubler, v. a. to redouble. 

Redouter, v. a. to fear, dread. 

Redresser, v. a. to rectify. 

Reel, le. a. real, true. 

Reflet, s. m. reflection. 

Refleurir, v. n. to blossom, or 
flourish again. 

Reflexion, s.f. reflection, medi- 
tation. 

Reformation, s. f. reformation, 
reform. 

Reforme, s.f. reformation. 

Refouler, v. a. to ebb, go against 
tide. 

Refraichissant, e. a. refreshing. 

Regard, s. m. a look, view. 

Regard er, v. a. to look at or on, 
behold, consider. 

Region, s. f. a region. 

Regie, s.f a rule. 

Regie, e. a. regular. 

Regie r, v. a. to regulate. 

Regnant, e. a. reigning. 

Regner, v. a. to reign, rule. 



T> :„ 

a^^uici, jLctgnier. 



Regret, s. m. regret. — Re- 
grets, s. m. pi. complaints, 
lamentations. 

Regretter, v. a. to regret. 

Regulier, e. a. regular. 

Rejetter, v. a. to throw back, re- 
ject. 

Reine, s.f. a queen. 

Rejoindre, a. v. to meet again, 
rejoin. 

Rejouir, v. a. to rejoice. 

Relever, v. a. to raise again. 

(se) Relever, v. r. to get up 
again. 

Religieux,se.a. religious, pious. 

Religion, s.f. religion, piety. 

Remarquer, v. a. to observe. 

Remede, s. m. remedy. 



Remedier,v. n. to remedy. 

Remettre, v. a. to restore, com- 
mit, remit, send. 

Remonter, v. a. to go up again, 
remount. 

Remora, s. m. remora [fish), ob- 
stacle. 

Remords, s. m. remorse. 

Rem placer, v. a. to replace. 

Remplir, v. a. to fill up. 

Remunerateur, s. m. rtwarder. 

Renard, s.m. a fox. 

Rencontre, s.f. rencounter, oc- 
casion. 

Rencontrer, v. a. to meet. 

Rend re, v. a. to render. 

(se) Rend re, v. r. to repair, re- 
sort. 

Renfermer, v. a. to shut up 
again, enclose, include. 

Renommee, s.f fame, report. 

Renouveller, v. a. to renew, re- 
vive. 

Rentrer, v. n. to come, go 7 or 

gel in again. 
Ren verse men t, s. in. overturn, 
Renverser, 5. in. throw down> 

overthrow. 
Renvoyer, v. a. to send again, 

send back, dismiss. 
Re pan d re, v. to scatter, spread. 
Reparer, v. a. to repair, make 

amends. 
Repartie, s.f. repartee, reply. 
Repartir, v. n. to reply. 
Repeter, r. to repeat. [cess. 

Repli, s. m. a fold, ivinding, re* 
Replier, v. a. to fold again. 
Rt pond re, v. to answer, reply. 
Rrponse, s.f answer, reply. 
Reporter, v. a. to cary back. 
Repos, s. m. rest, quiet. 
Reposer, v.n. to rest, slumber* 



394 



VOCABULARY. 



(se) Reposer, v. r. to take rest, 
settle. 

Repousser, v.a. to repel, repulse. 

Reprendre, v. a. to retake, re- 
sume, reply. 

Representer, v. a. to represent. 

Reprocher, v. a. to reproach. 

Reproduire, v. a. to reproduce. 

Republicain, e. s. a. republican. 

Republique, s.f. republic. 

Reputation, s.f. reputation, re- 
pule ,fame. 

Requete, s.f. request, petition. 

Reseau, s. m. bag-net, net-work. 

Reserve, s.f. reserve, proviso. 

(a la) Reserve, adv. except. 

Reserver, v. a. to reserve, keep. 

Resider, v. a. to reside, abide. 

Resign er, v. a. to resign. 

Resist er, v. n. to resist, oppose. 

Resolution, s.f. resolution, re- 
solve. 

Resoudre, v. a. to resolve. 

(se) Resoudre, v. r. to be re- 

. solved. 

Respect, s. m. respect, regard. 

Respecter, v. a. to respect. 

Respectueux, se. a. respectful. 

Respirer, v. to breathe. 

Resplendissant, e. a. resplen- 
dent, glittering. [likeness. 

Ressernblance, s.f resemblance, 

Ressembler, v. n. to resemble. 

Ressentir, v. a. to feel, resent. 

(se) Ressentir, v. r. to savor, 
smack. 

Resserrer, v. a. to bind up, con- 
tract, bind. 

Ressort, s. m. spring, cause. 

Ressortir, v. n. to be under the 
jurisdiction of. 

Ressource, s.f resource. 

Itessusciter, v. to raise, revive, 



Reste, s. m. remainder, residue. 

Rester, v. n. to remain, stay. 

Resulter, v. to result. 

Retentir, v. n. to resound, ring. 

Retire, e. a. retired. 

(se) Retirer, v. r. to retire. 

Retomber, v. n. to fall again. 

Retour, s. m. return, vicissitude. 

Retourner, v. to return, turn. 

Retranchernent, s. m. retrench- 
ment. 

Retrouver, v. a. to find again. 

Reve, s. m. a dream. 

Reveil, s. m. awaking, alarm. 

Reveler, v. a. to reveal. 

Revenir, v. n. to return. 

Rever, v. n. to dream, rave, be 
light-headed, muse, think. 

Reverer, v. a. to revere, reve- 
rence. 

Revetir, v. a. to clothe, invest. 

Reveur, se. a. thoughtful. 

Revivre, v. a. to come to life 
again, renew. 

Reunir, v. a., to reunite* 

Re voir, v. a. to see again. 

Revolution, s.f. revolution. 

Reussir, v.a. to succeed, prosper. 

Rhodes, Rhodes. [smiling. 

Riant, e. a. cheerful, pleasant, 

Riche, a. rich, wealthy. — , s. w. 
a rich man. 

Rich esses, s.f. pi. riches* 

Rideau, s. m. a curtain. 

Ridicule, s. m. ridicule, ridicu- 
lous thing. — , a. ridiculous. 

Rien,/?r. nothing, anything. 

Rienzi, Rienzi. 

Rieur, se. 5. a laugher. 

Rigide, a. rigid, stiff, stern. 

Rigoureux, se. a. rigorous. 

Rigueur, s. f rigor, severity, 
sharpness.. 



VOCABULARY. 



395 



Rime, s. m. rhyme. 

Hire, v. n. to laugh, joke. 

Rivage, 5. m. a shore, hank. 

Rival, e. a. rival, competitor* 

Rive, s.f. hank. 

Roc, 5. m. a rock. 

Rocailleux, a. pebbly. 

Roche, s.f a rock. 

Roc her, s. m. a rock. 

Roder, v. a to rove, ramble. 

Roi, s. m. a king. 

Roidir, v. a. to stiffen, stretch 
out. 

Role, s. m. part. 

Romain, e. a. s. Roman. 

Rome, Rome. 

Rom pre, v. to break. 

Romulus, Romulus. 

Ronce, s.f. briar. 

Ronrl, e. a. round, circular. 

Ronfler, v. n. to snore. 

Ronger, v. a. to eat, fret. 

Rose, Rose. — , s. f a rose. 

Roti, s. m. roasted meat. 

Roue, s.f. a wheel. 

Rouer,u.a. to break on the wheel. 

Rouge, a. red. 

Rougir, v. to redden. 

Rouler, v. a. to roll, run, re- 
volve. 

Route, s.f. road, way, route. 

Royal, e. a. royal. 

Royaume, 3. m. kingdom, realm. 

Royaute, s.f. royalty. 

Ruban, s. m. ribbon. 

Rude, a. harsh, rough. 

Rudesse, s.f. harshness, rude- 
ness, severity. 

Rue, s.f. a street, lane. 

Ruiue, s.f. ruin. 

Ruineux, se. a. ruinous. 

Ruisseau, 5. m. brook, rivulet. 

Rustique, a. rural, clownish. 



Rut, s. m. rutting. 
Rutilius, Rutilius. 

S, 

Sa, pr.f. his, her, its. 
Sable, s. m. sand. 
Sac, s. m. sack. 
Sacre, e. a. sacred, holy. 
Sacrifice, s. m. a sacrifice. 
Sacrifier, v. a. to sacrifice. 
Sage, a. wise. 

Sage, s. m. sage, wise man. 
Sagernent, adv. wisely. 
Sagesse, s.f. wisdom. 
Saint, e. a. holy. 
Saint Marc, St. Mark. 
Saintete, s.f holiness. 
Saisir, v. a. to seize. 
Saison, s.f. season. 
Salaire, s. m. salary, wages. 
Salle, s.f. hall, room. 
Salpetre, s. m. saltpetre, nitre. 
Saiuer, v. a. to salute. 
Salut, s. m. salutation. 
Salut ! i. hail! 
Salutaire, a. salutary. 
Sang, 5. m. blood, race. 
Sanglant, e. a. bloody. 
Sanglot, s. m. sob, sigh, groan. 
Sans, prep, without. 
Same, s.f. health. 
Satan, Satan, the devil. 
Satisfaction, s.f. satisfaction. 
Satisfaire, v. to satisfy. 
Satisfait, e. a. contented. 
Savant, e. a. s. learned. 
Savoie, Savoy. 
Savoir, v. a. to know. 
Sauvage, a. savage, wild. 
Sauver, v. a. to save. 
Scandale, s. m. scandal, of- 
fence. 



396 



VOCABULARY. 



Sceau, s. m. a seal. 
Sceller, v. a. to seal, cramp. 
Sceptre, s. m. a sceptre. 
Science, s.f. science. 
Scipion, Scipio. 
Scrupuleux, se. a. scrupulous. 
Sculpture, s.f. sculpture. 
Scutari, Scutari. 
Se, pr. one's self, himself, her- 

self themselves, itself 
Sec, Sec he, a. dry. 
Secheresse, 5./. dryness. 
Second, e. a. s. second. 
Secouer, v. a. to shake. 
Secourir, v. a. to succor, help. 
Secours, s. m. succor, help. 
Secousse, s. f. shake, jolt, 

spring. 
Secret, te. a. secret. 
Secret, s. m. secret, mystery. 
Secretaire, s. m. secretary. 
Sectaire, s. m. a sectary. 
Seditieux, se. s. rebel. 
Seduire, v. a. to seduce. 
Sein, s. m. bosom. 
Sejour, s. m. abode, mansion. 
Seller, v. a. to saddle. 
Selon, prep, according to, after. 
Semblable, a. like, similar, 

alike, such. 
Semblable, s.m. fellow creature. 
Sembler, v. a. to seem, look. 
Semelle, s.f sole. 
Semer, v. a. to sow, spread. 
Senateur, s. m. senator. 
Sens, s. m. sense. 
Sensation, s.f sensation. 
Sensibilite, s.f sensibility. 
Sensible, a. sensible, tender. 
Sensitive, s.f. sensitive plant. 
Sentiment, s. m. sentiment, 

sense f feeling, sensation. 
Sentinelle, s.f sentinel, sentry. 



Sentir, v. a. to feel, be sensible 
of, savor of, perceive. 

(se) Sentir, v. r. to feel. 

Separer, v. a. to separate, part. 

Sepulcre, s.m. sepulchre, grave. 

Serai 1, s. m. seraglio. 

Serein, e. a. serene, quiet. 

Serieux, se. a. serious, grave. 

Sermon, s. m. a sermon, dis- 
course. 

Serpent, s. m. serpent, snake. 

Serpen ter, v. n. to wind. 

Serre, s. f a talon. 

Serre, e, a. close. 

Serre, part, drawn up. 

Serrer, v. a. to squeeze. 

Servante, s. f servant-maid. 

Service, s. m. service. 

Servir, v. to serve, help, be of 
use. [of 

(se) Servir de, v. r. to make use 

Servitude, s.f servitude, sla- 
very. 

Ses, pr. pi. his, her, its. 

Severe, a. stern. 

Seul,e. a. alone, sole,'only. (un) 
Seul, (tine) Seule, a. one. 

Settlement, adv. only. 

Si, c. if so. 

Si bien que, c. so that. 

Siecle, s. m. a century, an age. 

Siege, s. m. seat, siege. 

Sien, ne, pr. his, hers. 

Siffler, v. to whistle, hiss. 

Signal, s. m. signal. 

Signaler, v. a. to signalize. 

Signe, s. m. sign, token. 

Signifier, v. a. to signify, mean. 

Silence, s. m. silence. 

Silencieux, se. a. silent, of few 
words. 

Silencieusement, adv. silently. 

Sillage, s. m. track. 



VOCABULARY. 



397 



Sillon, s. m. a furrow. 

Sillonner, v. a. to furrow. 

Simple, a. simple, plain. 

Simplement, adv. merely, plain- 
ly, only. 

Simplicite, s.f. simplicity. 

Sincere, a. sincere, honest. 

Sincerite, s. f. sincerity, can- 
dor. 

Singulier, e. a. s. m. singular. 

&'mgu\\evement,adv. singularly. 

Sinistre, a. sinister. 

Sire, 5. m. sire, lord, Sir. 

Site, s. m. site. 

Sitot que, c. as soon as. 

Situation, s.f. situation. 

Six, a. six. 

Sixieme, a. s. m. sixth. 

Sobre, a. sober, discreet. 

Sobriete, s.f. sobriety, temper- 
ance. 

Social, e. a. social. 

Societe, s.f. society. 

Socque, s. f. sandal, wooden 
clog. 

Socrates, Socrates. 

Sceur, s.f. a sister. 

Soi, pr. one's self, itself, one. 

Soi-meme, pr. one's self, him- 
self herself, itself. 

Soie, s.f. silk. 

Soin, s. m. care, anxiety. 

Soir, s. m. evening, night. 

Soixante, a. sixty. 

Sol, s. m. soil. 

Soldat, s. m. a soldier. 

Soleil, s. m. sun. 

Solide, a. s. m. solid, strong. 

Solidement,ae/v. solidly, strong- 
ly. 

Solitaire, a. solitary. 

Solitude, s.f. solitude. 

Sombre, a. dull, gloomy. 

34 



Somme, s.f. a sum. 
Sommeil, s. m. sleep. 
Sommet, s. m. top, summit. 
Somptueux, se. a. sumptuous, 

splendid. 
Son, s. m. sound, rhyme. 
Son, pr. m. his, her, its. 
Songer, v. to think, mind. 
Sonore, a. sonorous. 
Sophiste, s. m. sophist. 
Sophronisque, Sophroniscus. 
Sort, s. m.fale, lot. 
Sorte, s.f. sort, kind, manner. 
Sortir, v. n. to go or come out, 

issue. 
Sot, Sotte, a. s. silly, a fool. 
Sottement, adv. foolishly. 
Souci, 5. m. anxiety. 
Soudain, e. a. sudden. 
Soudain, adv. forthwith. 
Souffle, s. vi. puff, breath. 
Souffler, v. to blow, breathe. 

whisper. 
Souffrance, s. f. suffering. 
Souffrir, v. to suffer, endure. 
Souhait, s. m. a wish, desire. 
Souhaiter, v. a. to wish, desire. 
Souiller, v. a. to defile, stain. 
Soulever, v. a. to lift, stir up. 
(se) Soulever, v. r. to rise. 
Soulier, s. m. a shoe. 
Soumettre, v. to subdue, submit, 

subject. 
Soupcon, s. m. suspicion. 
Sou pi r, s. m. sigh. 
So u pi re r, v.n. to sigh. 
Souplesse, s.f. suppleness. 
Source, s.f. source, spring. 
Sourcil, s. m. eye-brow. 
Sourd, e. a. s. deaf. 
Sourire, v. n. to smile. 
Sourire, Souris, s. m. a smile. 
Souris, s.f. a mouse. 



398 



VOCABULARY. 



Sous, prep, under. 

Sou ten ir, v* a. to support, sus- 
tain, maintain. 

Souterrain, 5. m. vault. 

Souterrain, a. subterraneous. 

Soutien, s. m. a support. 

(se) Souvenir, v. r. to remember. 

Souvenir, s. m. remembrance. 

Sou vent, adv. often, frequently. 

Souverain, e, a. s. sovereign. 

Sparta, Sparta. 

Spartiate, Spartan. 

Spectacle, s. m. spectacle, show. 

Spectateur, rice. s. spectator. 

Spectre, s. m. spectre, ghost. 

Speculation, s.f. speculation. 

Sphere, s.f. sphere. 

Splendeur, s.f splendor, pomp. 

Statue, s.f. statue, fgure. 

Sterile, a. sterile, barren. 

Structure, s.f. structure. 

Stupide, a. stupid, dull. 

Stupide, s. blockhead, dunce. 

Style, s. m. style. 

Styx, Styx. 

Subir, v. n. to undergo, suffer. 

Subjuguer, v. a. to subdue. 

Sublime, a. sublime, grand. 

Submerger, v. a. to drown, sub- 
merge, sink. [nate. 

Subordonner, v. a. to subordi- 

Subsistance, s.f. subsistence. 

Substance, sf. substance, being. 

Subtil, e. a. subtle, fine. 

Succeder, v. n. to succeed. 

Succes, s. m. success. 

Successeur, a. s. m. successor. 

Successif, ve. a. successive. 

Succession, s.f. succession. 

Suffire, v. n. to suffer, satisfy. 

Suffrage, s. m. suffrage, vote, 

approbation. 
Sujet, te, a. subject. 



Sujet, s. m. subject, cause, rea- 
son. 

Suisse, Switzerland. 

Suite, s.f. train, series, succes- 
sion, consequence. 

Suivant, e. a. following, next. 

Suivant, s. m. a follower. 

Suivante, s.f. waiting- gentle- 
woman, companion. 

Suivre, v. a. to follow, attend, 
pursue. 

Superbe, a. haughty, sumptu- 
ous, superb. 

SupBrieur, e. a. s. superior. 

Superiorite, s.f superiority. 

Superstitieux, se. a. supersti- 
tious. 

Supplice, s.m. punishment, pain. 

Supporter, v. a. to support, bear. 

Supposer, v. a. to suppose. 

Suppot, 5. m. agent, member. 

Supreme, a. supreme. 

Sur, prep, on, upon, over, about, 
in, by, near, from. 

Sur, e, a. sure, certain. 

Surete, s.f safely, security. 

Surface, s.f. surface. [ly. 

Sur-le- champ, adv. immediate- 

Surpasser, v. a. to excel. 

Surprendre, v. a. to surprise, 
astonish. 

Surprise, s.f. surprise. 

Surtout, adv. above all, espec- 
ially. 

Survenir, v. n. to happen. 

Susceptible, a. susceptible. 

Susciter, v. a. to raise. 

Suspend re, v. a. to hang up, 
suspend. 

(en) Suspens, adv. in suspense 

Sylia, Si/lla. 

Sylva, Sylva. 

Systeme, s. m. system. 



VOCABULARY. 



399 



T. 

Ta,p\/. thy. 

Table, s.f. table. 

Tableau, s. m. a picture. 

Tacher, v. n. to endeavor, strive. 

Taille, s. f size. 

Taillis, 5. m. copse, underwood. 

(se) Taire, v. r. to be silent. 

Talent, s. m. talent, parts. 

Talisman, s. m. a talisman. 

Talon, 5. m. the heel. 

Talus, .?. m. slopeness. 

Tan d is que, c. whilst, as long as. 

Tant, adv. so many, as much. 

Tante, 5./. aunt. 

Tantor, adv. a little while ago, 
sometimes. 

Tard, adv. late, too slow. 

Tarder, v. n. to delay. 

Tard if, ve. tardy, slow. 

Tatius, Tatius. 

Taureau, s. m. a bull. 

Te, pr. thee thyself. 

Teint, s. m. complexion. 

Tel, Telle, a. such, like. 

Tel, Telle, s. such a one, many 
a one. 

Telemaque, Telemachus. 

Tel I e men t, adv. so much, so. 

Tern era ire, a. s. rash. 

Temoigner, v. to testify. 

Temoin, s. m. witness. 

Temperament, s. m. constitu- 
tion, tamper. [per. 

Temp'pT, v. a. to qualify, tem- 

Tempero, s.f. tempest, storm. 

Temple, 5. m. temple, church. 

Tempore!, le. a. temporal. 

Temps, s. m. time. 

Tend re, a. tenter, soft, nice. 

Tenebreux, se. a. gloomy. 



Tenir, v. to hold, keep, stick, he 

connected. 
(se) Tenir, v. r. to have. 
Tente, s.f. a tent. 
Tenter, v. a. to tempt, tempter. 
Terme, s. m. term, bound. 
Terminer, v. a. to terminate, end. 
Terrain, s. m. ground, soil. 
Terrnsse, s.f. terrace, platform, 
Tevre, s.f. earth, land. 
Terreu r, s.f terror. 
Terrible, a. terrible. 
Tes, pr. pi. thy. 
Tere, 5./. head. 
The, s. m. tea. 
Theatre, s. m. theatre, stage. 
Theorie, s.f. theory. 
Thomas, Thomas. 
Tibulle, Tibullus. 
Tigre, s. m. a tiger. 
Timide, a. timid, bashful. 
Tirer, v. to draw, pull, fire, lake 

out or off, derive, go. 
(se) Tirer, v. r. to get out or off. 
Tison, s. m. brand, firebrand. 
Tissu, e. a. woven, interwoven. 
Titre, s. m. title. 
Toi, pr. thou, thee, thyself. 
Toilette, s.f a toilet. 
Toison, s.f fleece. 
To it, s. m. the roof. 
Tombe, s.f. tomb, grave. 
Tom beau, s. m. tomb. [drop. 
Tomber, v. n. to fall, tumble, 
Ton, s. m. tone, strain, style. 
Ton, pr. thy, thine. 
Tonnant, e. a. thundering. 
Tonnerre, s. m. thunder. 
To re he, s.f torch. 
Torrent, s. m. a torrent. 
Tort, s. m. wrong, injury. 
Tor, adv. soon, quickly. 
Tola), e. a. total, whole, utter. 



400 



VOCABULARY. 



Touchant, e. a. moving, affect- 

%Ug. 

Toucher, v. to touch, strike. 

To uj ours, adv. always, ever. 

Tour, s.f. tower. 

Tour, s. m. turn, circumference. 

Tour-a-tour, adv. by turns. 

Tourbillon, s. m. whirlwind. 

Tourment, s. m. torment, tor- 
ture. 

Tousser, v. n. to cough, hem. 

Tout, e. a. all, whole, every. 

Tout, s. m. whole, all. 

Tout, adv. wholly, entirely, quite. 

Tout- a- co up, adv. suddenly. 

Tout- a- fait, adv. quite, wholly. 

Toutefois, c. nevertheless, yet. 

Toute-puissance, s.f. omnipo- 
tence. 
Tout-puissant, e. a. almighty. 
Trace, s.f footstep, track, trace. 
Tracer, v. a. to delineate, chalk 

out, describe, trace. 
Trad u ire, v. a. to translate. 
Tragedie, s.f a tragedy. 
Trahir, v. a. to betray. [son. 
Trahison, s. f treachery, trea- 
Train, s. m. track, way. 
Trainer, v. a. to draw 1 drag, 

trail. 
Trait, s. m. arrow, dart, trace, 

trait, feature, stroke. 
Traiter, v. a. to treat, use. 
Trancher, v. a. to cutoff, decide, 

distinguish. 
Tranquil le, a. quiet, calm. 
Tranquillement, adv. quietly. 
(se) Transformer, v. r. to be 

transformed. 
Transition, s.f. transition. 
Transport, s. m. transport, rap- 
ture. [convey. 

Transporter, v. a. to transport, 



Travail, s. m. work, labor. 
Travailler, v. to work, trouble. 
Travaux, 5. m.pl. works, labors. 
Travers, 5. m. misfortune. A* 
travers, Au travers, through. 
Traverser, v. a. to cross. 

Treillage, s. m. arbor-work. 

Treilie, s.f. a vine-arbor. 

Tremblant, e. a. shaking. 
Trembler, v. to tremble, shake, 

quaver. 
Trempe, s.f temper. 

Tremper, v. to soak, steep. 

Tresor, s. m. treasure. 

Triangulaire, a, triangular. 

Tribu, s.f a tribe. 

Tribun, s. m. a tribune. 

Tribune, s.frostrwn, tribune. 

Tribut, s. m. tribute, tax. 

Triomphant, e. a. triumphant. 

Triomphe, s. m. triumph. 

Triste, a. sad, dull. 

Tristesse, s.f. grief, sadness. 

Troie, Troy. 

Trois, a. s. m. three, third. 

Troisieme, a. s. m. third. 

Tromper, v. a. to deceive, cheat. 

(se) Tromper, v. r. to be mistak- 
en. 

Trompeur, se. a. deceitful. 

Trone, 5. m. throne. 

Trop, adv. too. 

Trou, s. m. a hole, gap. 

Trouble, a. cloudy, dim, dull. 

Trou bier, v. a. to trouble. 

Troupe, s.f. a troop, band. 

Troupeau, s. m.Jlock. 

Trouver, v. a. to find. 

Tumulte, s. m. a tumidly riot. 

Turban, s. m. a turban. 

Turbulent, e. a. turbulent. 

Ture, Turque, s. Turk. 

Tyran, s. m. tyrant. 



VOCABULARY. 



401 



Tyrannie, s.f. tyranny. 
Tyrannique, a. tyrannical. 



U. 

Un, Une, art. one, a, an. 
Union, s.f. union, concord. 
Unique, a. only, sole. 
Uniquernent, adv. only, entire- 

ly. 

Unir, v. a. to unite. 

Univers, s. m. the universe. 

Universel, le. a. universal. 

Urne, s.f. urn. 

Usage, s. m. usage, use, 

Usbek, Usbek. 

User, v. to use, waste, wear out. 

En user, to practise. 
Utile, a. useful. 
Utilite, s.f. utility, prof t, use. 



Vagabond, e. a. s. vagabond. 
Vague, s. m. void. 
Vague, s.f. a wave, surge. 
Vague, a. vague. 
Vaillant, e. a. valiant. 
Vain, e. a. vain. 
Vaincre, v. n. to vanquish, sub- 
due. 
Vainqueur, a. conquering. 
Vainqueur, s. m. a conqueror. 
Vaisseau, s. m. a vessel, ship. 
Valeur, s.f. worth, valor. 
Vallee, s.f. valley, vale. 
Vallon, s. m. dale, little valley. 
Valoir, v. a. to be worth. 
Vanite, s.f vanity, pride. 
Vanter, v. a. to extol. 
(se) Vanter, v. r. to boast of. 



Vapeur, 5./. vapor. 

Varier, v. a. to vary. 

Variete, s.f. variety. 

Vaste, a. vast. 

Vaucouleurs, Vaucouleurs. 

Vaux, Vaux. 

Vegetation, s. f vegetation. 

Vegetaux, s. m. pi. vegetables. 

Vegeter, v. n. to vegetate. 

Veiller, v. to ivatch. 

Veine, s.f. a vein. 

Vendre, v. a. to sell. 

Veneration, s.f. veneration. 

Venetien, Venetian. 

Vengeance, s.f. vengeance, re- 
venge. 

Venger, v. a. to revenge, avenge. 

Venimeux, se. a. venomous. 

Venir, v. n. to come, have just. 

Venise, Venice. 

Vent, s. m. wind. 

Venus, Venus. 

Ver, s. m. worm. 

Verbe, 5. m. the Word. 

Verdure, s.f. verdure. 

Veritable, a. true, genuine. 

Verite, s.f. truth. 

Vermeil, le. a. vermillion, lively 
red. 

Vers, s. m. verse. 

Vers, prep, towards, about, to. 

Verser, v. a. to pour, shed. 

Vert, e. a. green. 

Vertu, s.f. virtue, power. 

Vertueux, se. a. s. virtuous. 

Vetement, s. m. raiment, gar- 
ment. 

Vetu, e. a. clad. 

Veuf, s. m. widower. 

Veuve, s.f a widow. 

Vice, s. m. vice. 

Vicissitude, s.f vicissitude. 

Victime, s.f. a victim. 



402 



VOCABULARY. 



Victoire, s.f. victory. 

Vide, a. void, empty. 

Vie, s.f. life. 

Vieil, Vieux, a. old, ancient. 

Vieille, s.f old woman. 

Vieillard, s. m. old man. 

Vieillesse, s.f. old age. 

Vieillir, v. n. to grow old. 

Vierge, s.f. a virgin. 

Vif, ve. a. alive, sprightly, bright. 

Vif, s. m. the quick. 

Vigne, s.f vine. 

Vigneron, s. m. a vine-dresser. 

Vigoureux, se.a. vigorous, brisk. 

Vil, Vile, a. vile, mean. 

Village, s. m. village. 

Ville, s.f city, town. 

Vin, 5. m. wine. 

Vingt, a. twenty. 

Violence, s.f. violence. 

Violent, e. a. violent. 

Violette, s.f. a violet. 

Virgile, Virgile. 

Vi rg i n ie, Virginia. 

Visage, s.m.face, look, counte- 
nance. 

Visible, a. visible. 

Visiter, v. a. to visit. 

Vite, adv. quickly, fast. 

Vivant, e. a. s. living, alive, 
quick. 

Vivement, adv. sensibly, to the 
quick. 

Vivre, v. a. to live, behave. 

Vivre, 5. m.food. 

Veen, s. m. a vow, a vote. Vceux, 
pi. wishes, vows. 

Voie, s. f. way. 



Voila, adv. that is, those are, 
there is, there are, behold. 

Voile, s. m. veil. 

Voiler, v. a. to veil. 

Voir, v. n. to see, behold. 

Voisin, e. a. neighboring. 

Voiture, s.f. carriage. 

Voix, s.f. voice. 

Volage, a. s. fickle. 

Voler, v. n. to fly. 

Voleur, se. s. robber, thief. 

Volontairement, adv. volunta- 
rily. 

Volupte, s. f voluptuousness, 
pleasure. 

Votre, Vos,-pr. your. 

Vouer, v. a. to devote. 

Vouloir, v. a. to will, be willing. 
vAsh. 

Vous, pro. you, ye. 

Voute, s.f. vault, arch. 

Voyage, s. m. voyage. 

Voyageur, se. s. traveller. 

Vrai, e. a. true, right. 

Vraiment, adv. truly, indeed. 

Vue, s.f. sight, view. 

X. 

Y, adv. and pr. there, thither, of 

it. 
Yemen, Yemen. 
Yeux, s. pi. the eyes. Vid. Oeil. 

Z. 

Zele, s. m. zeal, affection. 
Zephyr, s. m. zephyr. 



END. 



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